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A 


HISTORY    OF    ART 


FOR  CLASSES,  ART-STUDENTS   AND 
TOURISTS    IN    EUROPE 


BY 

Wir.LIAM    HENRY    GOODYEAR,    M.A. 

CURATOR    OK    FINE  ARTS   IN    THE    MUSEUM    OF   THE    BROOKLYN   INSTITUTE   OF   ARIS  AND  SCIENCES 

FORMERLY  CURATOR  OF  PAIN  TINGS  IN  THE  METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM  OF  ART,   NEW  YORK 

HONORARY     MEMBER,     ROYAL     ACADEMIES     OF     VENICE     AND     MILAN   ;     OF    THE 

SOCIETY       OF       ARCHITECTS       OF       ROME  ;      OF      THE      ARCHITECTURAL 

ASSOCIATION    OF    EDINBURGH;     AND    CORRESPONDING   MEMBER 

OF      THE      AMERICAN      INSTITUTE      OF      ARCHITECTS 


TWENTIETH    EDITION 

RE\isED  AND  enlar(;ei:),  w  iih  ni:\v   u.i.rsrRArioNs 


U  «        ■  >        •       J 

I       »    >  •  »     » 


Copyrig;)*,"   ^88!l,"l8S5,  aWd- 1:89(5 .;'ty 

THE   A.   S.   JiARxNES   COMPANY 


NEW   YORK. 


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The  study  of  historical  art  may  appear  to  be  impractical,  or,  at 
least,  of  very  limited  use,  in  a  country  where,  relatively,  few  remains 
of  the  older  European  art  are  preserved,  and  where  the  interests  of 
the  nation  are  attached  to  the  future  rather  than  the  past.  Hence 
a  few  remarks  as  to  the  practical  uses  and  bearings  of  this  study 
are  in  place  here. 

The  training  of  the  taste  is  not  purely  a  matter  of  ornamental 
education ;  nor  does  it  imply,  even  indirectly,  an  affectation  of 
luxury,  or  of  the  expenditure  of  wealth.  In  most  branches  of 
trade,  and  in  many  branches  of  manufacture,  an  artistic  taste  is  a 
matter  of  practical  importance  in  tlie  gaining  of  one's  livelihood. 
There  are  few  kinds  of  handiwork  in  which  the  element  of  design 
does  not  enter,  and  wherever  the  arts  uf  design  are  in  question,  taste 
has  to  be  exercised.  The  general  tendency  to  introduce  the  practice 
of  drawing  into  elementary  school  instruction,  results  from  a  public 
recognition  of  these  practical  uses  of  art  instruction. 

If,  t)n  the  other  h;nid,  wo  take  tlie  stand-point  of  the  consumer, 
the  question  of  ''household  art"  is  one  of  coiuprehensive  impor- 
tance, and  the  education  of  taste  with  regard  to  it  has  great  value, 
even  as  a  matter  t)f  economy.  The  tendency  to  rate  things  by  their 
expense,  or  money  value,  is  a  very  common  and  very  mistaken  one. 
The  first  condition  of  g(wd  taste  is  t*^  know  how  much  may  be  done 
with  little  money,  and  to  undcistaiid  that  the  manifestation  of 
utility  in  forms  is  an  elementary  principle  of  art.  Moreover,  the 
most  practical  and  hard-working  lives  ought  not  to  be  deprived  of 
mental  and  spiritual  stimulus;  and  this  is  to  be  found  in  colors 
and  in  forms,  no  less  than  in  iiuisic  and  in  books.  If  we  consider 
the  training  of  taste  in  art  from  the  stand-point  of  polite  education, 
there  can  be  no  question  that,  in  this  sense,  it  is  becoming  an 
undisputed  essential. 


2U)H94 


iV  '  PREFACE. 

If  it  be  admitted  that  the  direction  and  instruction  of  artistic 
taste  are  matters  of  practical  and  economical  importance,  as  well  as 
of  polite  education,  the  study  of  the  history  of  art  needs  no  further 
apology.  Although  the  most  widely  spread  and  most  necessary 
exercise  of  taste  relates  to  ornamental  design  and  to  objects  of 
"household  art"  rather  than  to  architecture,  sculpture,  and  paint- 
ing, the  training  of  taste  must  be  largely  attained  through  these 
latter  arts.  Modern  ornamental  art  depends  on  that  which  went 
before  it,  and  has  been  even  too  dependent  on  the  past.  The  use 
of  historic  ornamental  forms,  both  in  good  and  bad  directions,  is 
so  absolutely  universal  that  the  history  of  ornament  is  unavoid- 
ably essential  to  the  comprehension  of  our  own.  This  history  is 
again  connected  with  the  great  periods  of  architecture,  sculpture, 
and  painting,  in  such  a  way  that  neither  the  phraseology  nor  the 
facts  of  the  subject  can  be  understood  without  reference  to  these 
other  arts. 

The  study  of  historic  art  is  also  made  advisable  by  the  con- 
sideration that  contact  with  the  best  examples  is  the  one  important 
thing  in  the  training  of  the  taste.  The  greatness  of  the  past  in 
all  departments  of  art  is  as  generally  admitted  as  our  own  pre- 
eminence in  purely  mechanical  and  material  civilization.  The  study 
of  art  history  is  simply,  then,  the  study  of  good  examples  of  art, 
considered  in  their  most  natural  arrangement  and  sequence — that 
of  time.  Finally,  however  much  our  own  immediate  interest  may 
turn  to  the  present  and  to  its  own  art  productions,  we  must  re- 
member that  even  in  the  strength  of  our  sj^mpathy  as  moderns  for 
modern  things  lies  an  important  reason  for  seeking  standards  and 
principles  of  taste  in  other  works.  In  literary  training,  for  instance^ 
it  is  generally  admitted  that  modern  authors,  however  excellent,  are 
not  the  best  standards  of  instruction.  General  principles  of  taste 
in  literature  are  best  founded  on  works  which  have  been  tested  by 
time  and  the  criticisms  of  more  than  one  generation.  Personal 
tastes,  one's  own  chance  acquaintances  and  surroundings,  or  the 
fashion  of  the  hour,  are  apt  to  be  disturbing  elements  when  we 
use  modern  work  as  the  standard  of  appeal  for  educational  purposes. 
In  dealing  with  the  past,  we  stand  on  firmer  ground.  The  weight 
of  authoritative  criticism  is  such,  and  its  verdicts  are  so  well  known, 
that  the  individual  instructor  becomes  the  exponent  of  these,  and 
must  be  judged   by   his   own   rendering   and   appreciation  of  them. 


PKEFACE.  V 

The  learner  tlion  stanrls  m  face,  not  of  an  individual  teacher,  but 
of  the  criticism  ol'  art  as  dctorminod  by  its  standard  authorities. 
To  develop  and  form  an  orij^iiial  and  independent  taste  is  the  object 
of  the  learner.  To  offer  a  lirni  basis  for  this  development  by  the 
suppression  of  individnal  views  and  by  attention  to  tlio  most  gent-ral 
principles  must  be  the  object  of  the  teacher.  On  the  whole,  the 
matter  of  fact  is  the  main  thing.  The  eye  can  be  trained  oidy 
through  the  objects  which  it  sees,  not  through  theories  or  intel- 
lectual process.  To  present  the  most  important  works  of  art  in  the 
most  natural  arrangement  and  let  llifm  work  Iheir  own  results,  is 
the  purpose  of  art  history.  To  this  ond  there  is  only  one  thing  more 
important  than  abundant  illustration  in  the  hand-book  itself,  viz., 
faithful  study  of  all  the  originals,  casts,  photographs,  and  copies 
which  can  be  made  accessibU>  outside  of  it. 

The  specific  aim  of  the  present  book  has  been  to  present  such  an 
amount  and  choice  of  illustration  as  have  never  l»een  previously 
attempted  in  similar  works,  and  as  a  class-book  to  present  the  sub- 
ject in  such  a  way  that  the  use  of  still  further  illustration  f()r  the 
combined  class  Avill  be  easy  and  desirable.  The  Soule  Photograph 
Company  of  Boston  have  made  it  their  mission  to  supply,  at  very 
cheap  cost,  complete  sets  of  photographic  illustrations  in  all  depart- 
ments of  art  history,  and  a  choice  from  their  catalogue,  suggested 
by  the  unillustrated  notices  of  this  book,  will  greatly  add  to  its 
usefulness. 

For  the  definitions  of  technical  terms  and  for  the  pronunciation 
of  foreign  words,  attention  is  called  to  the  Index.  Pronunciation 
and  definition  have  generally  been  entered  in  the  text  once,  but 
without  subsequent  repetition.  The  Index  gives  the  page  on  which 
the  pronunciation  or  definition  may  be  found,  as  well  as  the  usual 
matter  for  reference. 


ARCHITECTURE. 

Eelations  ot  Architecture,  Sculpture,  and  Painting,  in  Historic  Studies^        ^_    ^ 

of  Art 3_  28 

Historic  Styles  in  Modern  Architecture ^    '   ^       .29-42 

Ancient  Oriental  Nations ^  ^g_  g^ 

Architecture  of  the  Greeks ,        .  65-  80 

Eoman  Imperial  Period ^  81-92 

4-   Byzantine  Period ^        ^  92-101 

Romanesque  Period 101-110 

Gothic  Period 117-126 

Period  of  the  Renaissance 

SCULPTURE. 

127-130 

Introduction 131-136 

Chaldean  and  Assyrian  Sculpture '        '  ^^^^^.^g 

Egyptian  Sculpture *  ,    '   .        .  139-143 

Early  Greek  Sculpture *    ^  143-148 

preek  Architectural  Sculpture 148-154 

Roman  Copies  and  Greek  Originals '       '  ^^^  ^g^ 

Types  of  the  5th  Century  B.c *   .    *  .  101   160 

Types  of  the  4th  Century  B.c '    ^  ICO- 170 

Alexandrine  Period 180-188 

^Roman  Historical  and  Portrait  Sculpture '        '     ^^^_^^^ 

Byzantine  and  :Medieval  Sculpture '        ic^^.jos 

Revival  of  Sculpture  in  Italy ^        199-204 

15th  Century  Renaissance  Sculpture ^        ^    204-212 

16th  Century  Renaissance  Sculpture '  213-215 

17th  Century  Renaissance  Sculpture ^        ^    215-216 

18th  Century  Sculpture ^        ^        216-222 

I9th  Century  Sculpture .*        '        * 


V'^lll 


CONTENTS. 


PAINTING, 


Introduction 

Assyria,  'Egypt,  Qr^ece,  and  Rome    . 
Early  Christian'^^.    Byzantine  Mosaics    . 
Revival  of  Italian  Painting  in  the  14tli  Centmy 
Jtalian  Painting.     15th  Century  Renaissance 
ItaUan  Painting.     16th  Centurj'  Renaissance 
Italian  Paintmg.     l?th  Century  Renaissance 
Netherlands  and  Germany,  15th  Centmy 
German  Painters,  16th  Century     .        .        .        . 

Dutch  Painters,  17th  Century     .... 

Flemish  Painters,  17th  Century     .        .        .        . 

Spanish  School,  17th  Century     .... 

French  Painters       ...        ...       . 

The  18th  Century  (Enghsh  School)    . 

Modern  Painting 


D  • 


223-224 
225-230 
231-237 
237-246 
246-257 
257-297 
297-314 
315-321 
321-327 
327-335 
S35-342 
336-347 
347-348 
348-352 
352-371 


HISTORY  OF   MUSIC. 


Introduction 

Historical  Survey         .... 
Music  of  the  ISth  Century  in  Germany 
German  Music  of  the  19th  Century 
Modem  Italian  Opera 


Modem  Music  in  France  and  England 


372-373 
373-377 

377-381 

381-387 

388-389 

389 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE 

NO. 

i.— St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  New  York 

2. — ^Votive  Church,  Vienna     . 

S. — Girard  College,  Philadelphia 

4.— Church  of  the  Madeleine,  Paris 

5. — City  Hall,  Boston  .... 

6. — New  Opera  House,  Paris 

7. — Masonic  Temple,  Philadelphia    . 

<?.— All  Souls'  Church,  New  York 

9. — Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts 
10. — New  York  Academy  of  Design 
2i.— "Queen  Anne"  Building,  Newport,  R.  I 
12. — "Queen  Anne"  Country  House,  Lawrence,  L.  I. 


PAGB 

3 

4 

7 

8 

11 

12 

1!) 

19 

20 

2:^ 

21 

21 


EGYPTIAN     ARCHITECTURE. 

iJ.— Temple  of  Edfou 31 

U- — Temple  of  Khons,  Karnak.    (Longitudinal  Section.) 31 

15. — Temple  of  Khons,  Karnak.    (Ground  plan) 31 

16. — Temple  Court  and  Apartments,  Denderah 32 

17. — The  Kamesseum,  Thebes 35 

IS. — Ruins  of  Hermopolis 35 

19. — Ruins  on  the  Island  of  Philae 3(J 

20.— The  Pyramid  Field  of  Gizeh 39 

21. — Palace  of  the  Assjiian  King,  Sargon 40 

GREEK     ARCHITECTURE. 

f;?.— Temple  of  Thaseus.  Athens    (Present  condition.) 45 

23. — Acropolis  at  Athens.    (Present  condition.) 45 

i?4-— Parthenon,  Athens.    (Present  condition.) 45 

25. — Interior  of  the  Parthenon.     (Restored.) 40 

26. — Interior  of  the  Jupiter  Temple  at  Olympia.     (Restored.).        .        .        .  19 

^r.— Temple  of  the  "Wingless  Victoiy,"  Athenian  Arropolis       ....  50 

^.9.— Temple  of  Neptune,  Paestum 50 

29. — The  Erecththeium.    (Nortli-westem  view,  as  it  appeared  in  18th  Century).  53 

^<?.— Acropolis  of  Athens.     (Restored.) 54,  55 

SI. — Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  Athens 50 

S2. — Ruins  of  the  Olympian  Jupiter  Temple,  Athens 56 


X  LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS. 

ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

NO.  PAGE 

33. — Hall  in  the  baths  of  Caracalla,  Rome.    (Restored  view.)      ....  67 

SJ).. — Ruins  of  an  Aqueduct,  near  Rome 67 

,55.— The  Roman  Forum.    (Restored  view.) 68,  69 

3G. — The  Porta  Maggiore,  Rome 70 

57.— Basilica  of  Constantine,  Rome 70 

38. — The  Maison  Carree,  Nimes .        .  73 

59.— The  Pantheon,  Rome 73 

4^.— Portal  of  Roman  Temple,  Baalbec,  Syria -  74 

4/. — Triumphal  Arch  of  Trajan,  Benevento 77 

.li2. — Ruined  houses  and  colonnades,  Pompeii 78 

4<?.— The  Porta  Nigra,  Trier ,78 

BYZANTINE     ARCHITECTURE. 

ItJi.. — Basilica  of  San  Apollinare  Nuovo,  Ravenna 83 


47 
48. 
49 


— Basilica  of  San  Apollinare  in  Classe,  Ravenna       ......  84 

— Basilica  of  San  Apollinare  in  Classe,  Ravenna 84 

—Basilica  of  St.  Paul  (Fuori  le  Mura),  Rome 87 

—Church  of  San  Yitale,  Ravenna.     (Cross-section.) 88 

— Mosque  of  St.  Sophia,  Constantinople 88 


ROMANESQUE    ARCHITECTURE. 

50.— Church  of  San  Ambrogio,  Milan 93 

51. — Cathedral  of  Speyer 94 

5:?.— Cathedral  of  Worms 97 

53. — Notre  Dame  du  Port,  Clermont .97 

54- — Cathedral  of  Pisa.     (Exterior.) 98 

55. — Cathedral  of  Pisa.    (Interior.) 98 

GOTHIC     ARCHITECTURE. 

56.— Church  of  St.  Ouen,  Rouen.    (Interior.) J.03 

57.— Church  of  St.  Ouen,  Rouen.    (Exterior.) 104 

55.— Cathedral  of  Rheims J07 

59.— Type  of  Gothic  Sculptured  Ornament 108 

60.— Gothic  Window,  St.  Chapelle,  Paris 108 

6/.— Typical  Gothic  Crocket 108 

6f.— Typical  Gothic  Finial 108 

6S.— Cathedral  of  Amiens.    (Cross-section.) Ill 

64.— Church  Choir,  Pfaffenheim Ill 

65. — Church  of  Santa  Croce,  Florence 11? 

RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

66.— St.  Peter's  Church,  Rome 119 

67. — Court  of  the  Farnese  Palace,  Rome 120 

6S. — Church  of  St.  John  Lateran,  Rome 123 

69.— Window  of  the  Pitti  Palace,  Florence 124 


L 1  S  i"     U  F     1  L  L  U  S  T  1{  A  T  1  U  N  S . 


XI 


CHALDEAN     SCULPTURE. 


NO. 


HO. — Chaldean  Statue,  Louvre 
7i. —Chaldeau  Sculpture,  Louvre 


PAGE 
133 

133 


ASSYRIAN     SCULPTURE. 

T2. — Assyrian  Relief  from  N'neveh,  British  ihiseum 

?J. — King  Sargon.    Assyrian  Relief,  Berlin    .        .        .        . 


133 
134 


PERSIAN     SCULPTURE. 


7^. — Persian  lielief.     Palace  of  Darius,  Persejiolis 
75. — King  Darius  and  Attendants.     Persian  Relief 


134 

134 


EGYPTIAN     SCULPTURE. 


;'6.— The  "Wooden  Man  of  Boulak"    . 

77. — Head  of  Menepthah,  Pharaoh  of  the  E.xodus 

7S. — King  Shafra,  Museum  of  Boulak 

75. — Colossal  Statue  of  Raxneses  II.,  Ipsamboul    . 


137 
137 
137 
138 


GREEK     SCULPTURE. 


80. — Cypriote  Greek  Statue,  New  York       .... 

SI. — Cypriote  Greek  Statue,  New  York   .        .        .        .        , 

^i".— C\T)riote  Greek  Statue,  New  York       .... 

S3.— Si,  b.     Metopes,  Selinus 

8A. — Apollo  of  Tenea,  Munich 

85. — Tomb-stone  of  Aristion,  Athens         ..... 

86. — Gable  Sculpture  of  ^I*]gina.     (Restored  view.)    . 

67. — Gable  Sculpture  from  -5i^gina,  Munich     .... 

SS. — Section  of  the  Parthenon  Frieze,  British  Museum    . 

80. — Metope  Sculpture  from  the  I'arthcnon,  British  Museum 

i)0. — Theseus  of  the  Parthenon  Gable,  British  Museum   . 

91. — "Victory,"  Athenian  Acropolis 

92. — "Victory,"  Athenian  Acropolis 

9S. — Relief  from  Pergamus.  Berlin 

5^.— Altar  of  Jupiter.     (Restored  view.)      .... 

95. — "Victory"  by  Pav.nius,  Olympia 

»6.— Mercury  with  the  Infant  Bacchus,  V)y  I^raxiteles 

97. — Head  of  the  same 

.95.— Copy  of  the  Phidian  Minerva 

99. — Min(M-va,  Vatican 

100. — Otricoli  Jupiter,  Vatican 

101. — Juno  of  the  T^udovisi  Villa 

102. — Amazon,  Capitol  Museum 

lOS. — Disk-thrower,  Vatican 

lOIf. — Head  of  the  Milo  Venus 


141 
141 
141 
142 
142 
142 
l-lfi 
M.l 
145 
IK) 
14(j 
149 
149 
149 
150 
153 
154 
154 
157 
157 
158 
159 
160 
160 
163 


XU  LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS. 

NO.  PAGE 

105.— Head  of  the  Niobe 163 

106. — The  Milo  Venus,  Louvre 164 

107. — Dancing  Faun,  Florence 165 

lOS. — Cupid,  Vatican 166 

109. — Bacchus,  Vatican 166 

110.— Niohe,  Florence 167 

111. — Apollo  with  the  Lyre,  Vatican 167 

112. — Apollo  with  the  Lizard,  Capitol  Museum        .......  168 

113.— The  "Marble  Faun,"  Capitol  Museum 168 

i24.— Head  of  the  "  Belvedere "  Apollo 171 

115, — Head  of  the  Diana  of  Versailles 171 

116. — Mars  of  the  Ludovisi  Villa 172 

117. — "Farnese"  Hercules,  Naples 172 

ii.?.—"  Belvedere "  Apollo,  Vatican 173 

119. — Diana  "of  Versailles,"  Louvre 173 

i^C.—"  Medici "  A^enus,  Florence 174 

if i.— The  Wrestlers,  Florence 175 

iff.— The  "  Dying  Gladiator,"  Capitol  Museum 175 

123. — Laocoon  Group,  Vatican 176 

i^4.—"  Farnese "  Bull  Group,  Naples 179 

ROMAN    SCULPTURE. 

1S5. — The  Column  of  Trajan,  Rome 180 

if 6.— Onyx  Cameo,  Vienna 183 

if7.— Relief  from  the  Arch  of  Titus,  Rome 183 

if5.— Bust  of  Tiberius,  Vatican 184 

if 9.— Bust  of  Caligula,  A^atican 184 

130. — Bust  of  Scipio  Africanus,  bronze,  Naples 184 

i^i.— Bust  of  Nero,  Vatican 184 

i5f.— Bust  of  Hadrian,  Vatican ,  184 

i5-5.— Statue  of  Augustus,  Vatican 185 

i,?.^.— Marble  Rehef,  Roman  Forum 186 

135. — Head  of  Bacchus  (So-called  Ariadne),  Capitol  Musemai    .        .        .        ,  187 

136. — Head  of  Antinoiis,  Vatican -  187 

137. — Relief  from  the  Arch  of  Marcus  Aurelius 188 

MEDIEVAL    SCULPTURE. 

138. — Early  Christian  Sarcophagus 19  i 

i59.— Ivory  Diptych  at  Monza 19& 

i^O.— Ivory  Tablet  in  the  Hotel  Cluny,  Paris 193 

141. — Statue  in  Nuremberg.     Fourteenth  Centmy 194 

14s. — Statue  in  Strassburg.     Fourteenth  Century 194 

143. — Statue  in  Niiremberg.     Late  Fourteenth  Cehttiry 194 

144' — Pulpit  in  the  Pisa  Baptistery.     Nicolo  Pisano 197 

i45.— Nicolo  Pisano.     The  Nativity 198 

146. — Nicolo  Pisano.     Adoration  of  the  Magi 198 


LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATiU^S.  xiii 

RENAISSANCE     SCULPTURE. 

KO.  PAGE 

lJi.7. — Andrea  Delia  Robbia.     Enameled  relief 199 

IJfS.— Bronze  Doors  of  the  Florence  Baptistery,  by  Ghiberti    .        .        .         200,  201 

U9. — Equestrian  Statue  of  Guatamalata,  by  Donatello 202 

150. — Equestrian  Statue  of  CoUeoni,  by  Verocchio       .        .        .        .        .        .  205 

75i.— Michael  Angelo.     David.     Florence 206 

75;?. —Michael  Angelo.     "The  Day."    Florence 207 

i5J.— Michael  Angelo.     "The  Night."    Florence 207 

i54.— Michael  Angelo.     Moses.     Rome 208 

155. — Michael  Angelo.     Captive.     Louvre 211 

256.— :Michael  Angelo.     "Pieta."    Rome 211 

i57.— Michael  Angelo.     Captive.     Lou\Te 211 

15S. — Benvenuto  Cellini.     Perseus.     Florence 212 

159. — Germain  Pilon.    The  Graces.    Louvre 212 

160. — John  of  Bologna.     "  Flying  Mercury."    Florence 212 

161. — Bernini.     Apollo  and  Daphne.     Borghese  Villa.  Rome        .        .        .        .213 

ifi-'.— Bernini.     "Pieta."    St.  John  Lateran,  Rome ?13 

163.— Peter  Fischer.     Tomb  of  St.  Sebald,  Nuremberg 214 

MODERN     SCULPTURE. 

164. — Canova.    Hebe.    Berlin 217 

165. — Dannecker.     Ariadne.     Frankfort-on-Main 218 

166. — Canova.     Cupid  and  Psyche.     Louvre 218 

167. — Thorwaldsen.    Venus.     Copenhagen ogi 

16S. — Thorwaldsen.     Mercury.     Copenhagen 222 

EGYPTIAN     PAINTING, 
iff.').— Tj-pe  of  Egj-ptian  Profile  Design.     King  Seti  I.     Abydus  ....    227 

GRECO-ROMAN     PAINTING, 
iro.— Battle  of  Issus.     Mosiiic.     Pompeii j28 

BYZANTINE    MOSAICS.      EARLY    CHRISTIAN    ART. 

171.  — The  Good  Shepherd.     Mosaic.     Tomb  of  Galla  Placidia       ....  233 

i7J.— The  Last  Supper.     Fresco.     Catacombs  of  San  Calisto.     Third  Century  23  i 

irj.— Miniature  Painting.     The  Apostle  Matthew 234 

i74.— Emperor  Justinian  and  Courtiers.     Mosaic.     San  Vitale.     Ravenna     .  235 

175. — Christ  before  Pilate.     Mosaic.     San  Vitale.     Ravenna          .        .                .  235 

iro'.— The  Saviour.     Mosaic.    Church  of  Santi  Cosma  e  Damiano  .        .        .  236 

ITALIAN    PAINTING.      14TH    CENTURY. 

277.— Giotto.     The  Birtli.     Fresco,  Padua o.^r, 

275.- Giotto.     Presentation  of  the  Virgin.     Fresco,  Padua        ....         239 
279.— Giotto.    Fhght  into  Egypt.    Fresco,  Padua 240 


XIV 


LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS. 


NO. 

ISO.— Giotto. 
181.— Giotto. 
2.^5.— Giotto. 
155.— Giotto. 
254.— Giotto. 


PAGE 

The  Flagellation.    Fresco,  Padua  ...,,..  240 

The  Judas  Kiss.     Fresco,  Padua 243 

The  Deposition.     Fresco,  Padua 243 

The  Resurrection.     Fresco,  Padua 244 

St.  Francis  of  Assisi  preaching  before  Pope  Honorius  III.     .  244 


ITALIAN    PAINTING.      15TH    CENTURY. 

1S5. — Masaccio.     The  Tribute  Money.     Fresco,  Florence 

1S6. — Masolino.    Fresco  from  Scenes  in  the  Life  of  the  A^irgin 

1S7. — Benozzo  Gozzoli.     St.  Augustine  taken  to  School 

188. — Frescoes  by  Perugino.     Merchants'  Exchange  (Cambio),  Perugia 

189. — Ghirlandajo.     The  Visitation.     Florence 

190. — Filippo  Lippi.     Madonna.     Florence 

191. — Fra  Angelico  da  Fiesole.     Madonna.     Florence     .... 


247 
248 
251 
252 
255 
256 
256 


ITALIAN    PAINTING.      16TH    CENTURY. 

193. — Leonardo  da  Vinci.     Detail  of  the  Last  Supper.     Milan 
193. — Leonardo  da  Vinci.     Battle  of  the  Standard  .... 

194. — Luini.    Tobit  and  the  Angel.     Milan 

195. — Raphael.     Madonna  della  Sedia.      Pitti  Gallery,  Florence  . 
196. — Raphael.     "Granduca"  Madonna.     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence 
i.97.— Raphael.     "Poetry."    Vatican  Fresco      ..... 
198. — Raphael,     "  Overthrow  of  Heliodorus."    Vatican  Fresco 
199. — Raphael.     "  Incendio  del  Borgo."    Vatican  Fresco 
SOO. — Raphael.     Abraham  and  the  Angels.     Vatican  Loggie    . 
SOI. — Raphael.    Jacob  and  Laban.     Vatican  Loggie 
SOS. — Raphael.     Charge  to  Peter.     South  Kensington 
SOS. — Raphael.    Pope  Leo  X.  with  Cardinals.     Floiance 

S04. — Raphael.    St.  Cecilia.     Bologna 

205. — Raphael.    Transfiguration.     A^'atican 

206. — Sistine  Chapel.    Palace  of  the  Vatican        .... 
207. — Michael  Angelo.     Creation  of  the  Sun  and  Moon 
208.— Gorreggio.     "The  Holy  Night."     Dresden  .... 
209. — Correggio.     Fresco,  San  Giovanni.     Parma     .... 
210. — Andrea  del  Sarto.     Holy  Family.     Munich 

211.— Giovanni  Bellini.     The  Dead  Christ.     Milan 

212. — Carpaccio.     Presentation  of  the  Infant  Christ  to  Simeon.    Venice 
213. — Giovanni  Bellini.     Madonna  and  Saints.    A^enice  .... 
214.— Giorgione.     Head  of  the  Madonna,  at  Castelfranco,  near  Venice 
^i5.— Titian.    Detail  of  Christ  and  the  Tribute  Money.     Dresden 
216.— Titian.     "Earthly  and  Heavenly  Love."    Rome       .... 

S17. — Titian.    Venus  and  Bacchante.     Munich 

'218. — Palma  Vecchio.     Saint  Barbara.     Venice 

219. — Palma  Vecchio.     Christ  and  the  "Widow  of  Nain.     Venice 
220. — Tintoretto.     Mercury  and  the  Graces.     Ducal  Palace,  A^enice 
221. — Paul  Veronese.     The  Madonna  and  St.  Anthony.    A^'enice 


259 
260 
263 
264 
264 
267 
268 
271 
272 
272 
273 
274 
275 
276 
279 
280 
285 
286 
287 
288 
288 
291 
291 
292 
293 
293 
294 
295 
295 
296 


LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS.  XV 

ITALIAN    PAINTING.      17TH     CENTURY. 

{«w.  PAGE 

222. — Guido  Reui.    Am'ora.     Kospigliosi    Villa,  Rome 299 

223.—(ji\x\do  Reui,     "  Ecco  Homo."     Dresden 3U0 

S24. — Guido  Reui.    I'oitrait  of  Beatrice  Cenci.    Bai-berini  Palace,  Roiao     .  300 

^^5. —Guido  Reni.    Sibyl.     Florence 301 

^^6.— Guido  Reni.    Magdalen.    Rome 301 

227. — Domenichino.    Last  Communion  of  St.  Jerome.    Vatican  ....  302 

22s. — Guercino.     "  Fama."    Fresco.    Ludovisi  Villa,  Rome      ....  305 

229. — Guercino.     Abraham  and  Hagar.    Milan 306 

230. — Guercino.     "Sleeping  Endymion."    Florence      ......  309 

?Ji.— Carlo  Dolce.     "  Mater  Dolorosa."    Florence 309 

232.—Qa.v\o  Dolce.     Holy  Family.    Rome 310 

?SS. — Carlo  Dolce.    The  Annunciation.    Florence 310 

234. — Carlo  Dolce.     Magdalen.     Florence 311 

^55.— Ribera.    St.  Bartholomew.    Madrid 311 

236. — Ribera.     Martyrdom  of  St.  Bartholomew.    Madrid 311 

237. — Caravaggio.     Entombment.     Vatican 312 

B3S. — Salvator  Rosa.     John  the  Baptist.     Florence 312 

FLEMISH    AND    GERMAN    PAINTING.      15TH    CENTURY. 

239,  240,  542.— Hubert  and  Jan  Van  Eyck.     Details  "Adoration  of  the  Lamb"  317 

f^;?.— Master  Stephan.     Adoration  of  the  Magi.     Altar  Painting     .        .        .  318 

f.^.— Roger  Van  der  "Weyden.     Descent  from  the  Cross.    Madrid      .        .        .  319 

f44.— Holbein  the  Elder.    The  Presentation.    ^Munich 320 

FLEMISH    AND    GERMAN    PAINTING.     16TH    CENTURY. 

■J45. — Albert  Durer.     Engraving  on  Copper 323 

i:,^6.— Albert  Durer.     His  own  Portrait.     Munich 324 

£"47. —Hans  Holbein.    The  "  Meyer  Madonna."    Dresden 325 

as. — Lucas  Cranach.     Judith.     Ca.ssel 326 

t'>»5.— Quentiu  Matsys.     "  Pieta."    Munich 326 

DUTCH    PAINTING.      17TH    CENTURY. 

f5C— Rembrandt.    Portrait  of  an  Unknown  ^Van.    St.    Petersburg      .       .  329 

;?5i.— Jacob  Ruysdael.    The  Swamp 330 

S52.—Pan\  Potter.    Young  Bull.     The  Hague 331 

f55.— Terburg.     The  Trumpeter.     Dresden 332 

?54.— Adrian  Van  Ostade.     The  Smoker.     Dresden 332 

i?55.— Adrian  Van  Ostade.     Landscape 333 

^'Je.— Solomon  Koninck.     Tlie  Hermit.     Dresden 334 

i'^?.— Schalken.    Girl  with  Candle.    Dresden 334 

FLEMISH    PAINTING.      17TH  CENTURY. 

f5.9.— David  Teniers  the  Younger.     Village  Tavern.     Schwerin        .        .        .  337 

*5£>.— Jacob  Jordaens.     Family  Concert.     Berlin 338 


XVI  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIOifS. 

NO.  PAGE. 

£60.—SnjderSi.    Lioness  and  Wild  Boar.    Florence 339 

f6i.— Rubens.     Christ  and  the  Magdalen.     Munich 340 

^6^.— Rubens.    Portrait  of  Maria  Medici,     Madrid 341 

263. — Van  Dyck.    Portrait  of  Gustavus  Adolphus ,        .  342 

SPANISH    PAINTING.     17TH   CENTURY. 

£64. — Velasquez.     The  Infanta  Marguerita.     Louvre 343 

S:65. — Mujdllo     Detail  of  the  "  Immaculate  Conception."    Louvre.        .       .        .  344 

^66.— Mmilio.    Vision  of  St.  Francis.    Museum,  Seville       .....  345 

FRENCH   PAINTING.     17TH   CENTURY. 

^6'7o— Pcussm.     "  The  Seasons  Dancing  before  Time  " 346 

S!6S. — Claude  Lorraine.    "  Evening.    Acis  and  Galatea"       .        .       .        ,       .  346 

18TH   CENTURY   PAINTING. 

S69. — Watteau.     Bust  of  a  Girl  (Drawing).     Louvre 349 

270. — Greuze.    Head  of  a  Girl.    National  Gallery ,  349 

S71. — Sir  Joshua  Rejoiolds.    Age  of  Innocence.    National  GaUery         .        .        .  350 

S72.— Thomas  Gainsborough.    Portrait  of  Mrs.  Siddons.    National  Gallary      .  350 

MODERN   PAINTING. 

273.— John  Constable.    The  Corn  Field        ...» 355 

274.— J.  M.  W.  Turner.     Hastings 356 

275. — Theodore  Rousseau.    Landscape =        .361 

276.— J.  F.  Millet.    The  Gleaners 361 

277.— J.  B.  C.  Corot.    Landscape 382 

$78.— C.  Troyon.    The  Shepherd's  Dog 362 


LIST  OF  TEXT  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Architecture,  Sculpture,  and  Painting  (vignette) . vi 

Medusa  (tail-piece) ,  viii 

Relief  from  the  Colunxn  of  Trajan  (tail-piece) xvii 

Three  Orders  of  Grecian  Architecture c        .  6 

Court  of  a  Modern  Oriental  House.    Arab  Style c  28 

Temple  of  Khons,  Karnak   ...                38 

Rock  Tombs  of  Beni  Hassan .        c        .        .        .  41 

Proto-Doric  Column,  Beni  Hassan 41 

Lotus-bud  Capital,  Beni  Hassan    .- ^41 

Ruins  of  the  Great  Hall  of  Karnak,  Thebes 42 

Doric  Capital,  Parthenon        .        .        = 60 

Ionic  Capital,  Erechtheimn 60 


LIST    OF     1  LLLSTi;  ATIOXS. 


XVI 1 


PAGE. 

Coriothian  Cajjilal,  Clioragic  Monuinont  of  Lysicrates       .                 ....  60 

Scheme  of  Doric  Temple  Construction,  Parthenon 61 

Acroterium  of  the  Parthenon .  61 

Ionic  Entabhiture,  Priene    , 62 

Ionic  Cuhiiiniar  liases,  Athens 63 

Conventional    Lotuses   and    '*  Palmettes,"    and    Greek  "Fret"    or  "Meander." 

From  the  Parthenon 6-4 

Egg  and  Dart  ^Molding.             .....  64 

Apartment  in  a  l\)inpeian  House 79 

Plan  of  a  Pompeian  House 79 

Theater  of  Marcellus,  Rome 80 

Byzantine  Capital,  liavenna,  Sixth  Century        ...                ....  110 

Byzantine  Capital,  Ravenna,  Sixth  Century    .......  113 

Romanesque  Capitals,  Limburg 113 

Type  of  Romanesque  Cube  Capital 113. 

Romanesque  Pier  Capital,  Gei-nrode ,        .        .113 

Romanesque  Pier  Capital,  Hacklingen 113 

Romanesque  Pier  Capitals,  Northampton 114 

Typical  Gothic  Capital,  Esslingen 114 

Typical  Gothic  Capital,  Cologne 115 

Typical  Gothic  Capital,  Rheims 115 

Typical  Gothic  Finial.  Troyes 115 

The  Cathedral  of  Florence 116 

The  Arch  of  Titus .        .  122 

Temple  Bar,  liondon 126 

The  Scribe,  Louvi-e .        .        o        .        .  136 

Assyrian  Human-Headed  Winged  Bull .  136 

Assyrian  Lion-Hunt  (from  the  sculptures) 225 

Egj-ptian  War  Chariot  (Thebes) ....  226 

Greek  Yase,  Munich 230 

Cai-lo  Dolce.    St.  Cecelia,  Dresden 314 


Kelicf  from  the  Column  of  Trajan. 


XVI  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

NO.  PAGE. 

260. — Snyders.    Lioness  and  Wild  Boar.    Florence 339 

S61. — Rubens.     Chi-ist  and  the  Magdalen.     Munich 3-10 

;?6^.— Rubens.    Portrait  of  Maria  Medici     Madrid 3-il 

263.— Van  Dyck.    Portrait  of  Gustavus  Adolphus o        .  342 

SPANISH   PAINTING.     17TH   CENTURY. 

864. — Velasquez.     The  Infanta  Marguerita.    Louvre 343 

^65. — Mujillo     Detail  of  the  "  Immaculate  Conception."    Louvre  ....  344 

266.—lLm-iho.    "V.sion  of  St.  Francis.    Museum,  Seville       .....  345 

FRENCH   PAINTING.     17TH   CENTURY. 

S67. — Pcussin.    "  The  Seasons  Dancing  before  Time  " 346 

263. — Claude  Lorraine.     "  Evening.    Acis  and  Galatea"        .        .        .        ,        ,  346 

18TH   CENTURY   PAINTING. 

269. — Watteau.    Bust  of  a  Girl  (Drawing).     Louvre 349 

S70. — Greuze.    Head  of  a  Girl.     National  Gallery ,  349 

S71. — Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.    Age  of  Innocence.    National  GaUery         .        .        .  350 

S72. — Thomas  Gainsborough.    Portrait  of  Mrs.  Siddons.    National  Gallary      .  350 

MODERN   PAINTING. 

273.— John  Constable.    The  Com  Field        ...        o       .....  355 

27^.-3.  M.  W.  Turner.    Hastings 356 

275. — Theodore  Rousseau.    Landscape »        .  361 

276.— J.  F.  Millet.    The  Gleaners 361 

277.-3.  B.  C.  Corot.     Landscape 382 

978.— Q.  Troyon.    The  Shepherd's  Dog 362 


LIST  OF  TEXT  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Architecture,  Sculpture,  and  Painting  (vignette) . vi 

Medusa  (tail-piece) ,  viii 

Relief  from  the  Column  of  Trajan  (tail-piece) xvii 

Three  Orders  of  Grecian  Architecture                »        .  6 

Court  of  a  Modern  Oriental  House.    Ai'ab  Style o  28 

Temple  of  Khons,  Karnak 38 

Rock  Tombs  of  Beni  Hassan .        »        .       .        .  41 

Proto-Doric  Column,  Beni  Hassan 41 

Lotus-bud  Capital,  Beni  Hassan    . ,        ,  41 

Ruins  of  the  Great  Hall  of  Karnak,  Thebes 42 

Doric  Capital,  Parthenon        .        .        , 60 

Ionic  Capital,  Erechtheium 60 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTKATION'S. 


xvn 


and 


Greek 


Corinthian  Capital,  Choragric  ;^^onument  of  Lysicrates 

Scheme  uf  l)(>ric  Temple  Construction,  Partlienon  . 

Acroterium  uf  the  Pai'thenon 

Ionic  Entablature,  Priene    .... 

Ionic  CoUunnar  Bases,  Athens 

Conventional    Lotuses    and    "  Palmettes," 

From  the  Pai'thenon      .... 
Egg  and  Dart  ^Molding. 
Apartment  in  a  Pompeian  House 
Plan  of  a  Pompeian  House 
Theater  of  Marcellus,  Rome 
Byzantine  Capital,  Kavenna.  Sixth  Century 
Byzantine  Capital,  Kavenna,  Sixth  Century 
Romanesque  Capitals,  Limburg    . 
Type  of  Romanesque  Cube  Capital    . 
Romanesque  Pier  Capital,  Cernrode 
Romanesque  Pier  Capital,  Ilacklingen 
Romanesque  Pier  Capitals,  Noi'thampton 
Typical  Gothic  Capital,  Esslingen 
Typical  Gothic  Capital,  Cologne    . 
Typical  Gotliic  Capital,  Rheims 
T}-pical  Gothic  Finial,  Troyes 
The  Cathedral  of  Florence  .... 

The  Arch  of  Titus 

Temple  Bar,  liOndon 

The  Scribe,  Louvre 

Assyrian  Human-Headed  Winged  Bull 
Assyrian  Lion-Hunt  (from  the  sculptures) 
Egj-ptian  War  Chariot  (Thebes) . 
Greek  Vase,  Munich        .... 
Carlo  Dolce.    St.  Cecelia,  Dresden      . 


Fret  "■ 


or 


Meander, 


e  • 


•  • 


PAGE. 

60 
61 
(U 
62 
63 

64 
64 
79 
79 
80 

nn 

113 
113 
113. 
113 
113 
114 
114 
113 
115 
115 
116 
122 
126 
136 
136 
225 
226 
230 
314 


^^v  ><=53v  '^^&f  ^y  r^ff 


Kelief  from  the  Column  of  Trajan. 


ARCHITKCTURK. 


I. 

RELATIONS    OF    ARCHITECTURE,    SCULPTURE,    AND    PAINTING    IN 

HISTORIC   STUDIES    OF   ART. 

JT  has  just  been  noted  that  a  systematic  knowledge  of  ornamental 
art  is  dependent  on  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of  art  as  a 
whole — of  its  epochs,  and  styles,  and  of  the  terms  which  are  used  to 
explain  and  designate  them.  It  is  the  aim  of  this  work  to  present 
such  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  art  as  a  whole.  lu  tlie  matter  of 
ornamental  design  considered  as  a  specialty  (as  distinct  from  that 
general  education  of  taste  which  is  necessary  to  good  perceptions 
about  it),  special  works  of  illustration  devoted  to  it  must  be  con- 
sulted;* but  these  can  only  be  used  to  advantage  by  possessing  the 
preliminary  knowledge  here  in  (question. 

AYith  regard  to  the  history  of  art  (conceived  in  the  sense  of 
design,  as  distinct  from  music,  poetry,  etc.),  the  three  subjects  of 
Architecture,  Sculpture,  and  Painting  are  those  to  be  first  considered, 
but  whether  together  or  separately  is  a  matter  to  be  determined 
by  circumstances.  In  the  study  of  historic  art,  the  facts  and  con- 
nections of  history  itself  are  of  supreme  importance.  There  is 
indeed  no  more  agreeable  and  instructive  approach  to  history  than 
that  offered  ])y  its  actual  relics  and  monuments.  From  the  historic 
point  of  view,  the  method  which  considers  all  the  arts  in  question 
in  combination,  and  which  unites  the  description  of  all  for  each 
epoch,  is  the  most  natural  mikI  .satisfactory.  The  treatment  of  these 
topics  has,  however,  been  separated  in  the  present  b(wk  on  account 
of  its  necessary  brevity,  and  l)ecau.se  that  kind  of  knowledge  which 
is  most  directly  applicable  to  modern  art  can  be  most  directly  pre- 
sented in  this  Avav. 

•  Owen  .Tones,  '•(rrainmar  of  Ornament";  Racinet,  " Pnlyrhroinatic  Ornament,"  etc.  Tlicse 
and  similar  works  are  too  large  and  expensive  for  private  ownership  in  general,  but  may  be  found 
In  most  public  librai-ies. 


ARCHITRCTURE. 


I. 

RELATIONS    OF    ARCHITECTURE,    SCULPTURE,    AND    PAINTING    IK 

HISTORIC   STUDIES    OF   ART. 

IT  has  just  been  noted  that  a  systematic  knowledge  of  ornamental 
art  is  dependent  on  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of  art  as  a 
whole — of  its  epochs,  and  styles,  and  of  the  terms  which  are  used  to 
explain  and  designate  them.  It  is  the  aim  of  this  work  to  i3resent 
such  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  art  as  a  whole.  In  the  matter  of 
ornamental  design  considered  as  a  specialty  (as  distinct  from  that 
general  education  of  taste  which  is  necessary  to  good  perceptions 
about  it),  special  works  of  illustration  devoted  to  it  must  be  con- 
sulted;* but  these  can  only  be  used  to  advantage  by  possessing  the 
preliminary  knowledge  here  in  question. 

"With  regard  to  the  history  of  art  (conceived  in  the  sense  of 
design,  as  distinct  from  music,  poetry,  etc.),  the  three  .subjects  of 
Architecture,  Sculpture,  and  Painting  are  those  to  be  first  considered, 
but  whether  together  or  separately  is  a  matter  to  be  determined 
by  circum.stances.  In  the  study  of  hi.storic  art,  the  facts  and  con- 
nections of  hi.story  itsolf  are  of  supreme  importance.  There  is 
indeed  no  more  agreeable  and  instructive  approach  to  history  than 
that  offered  by  its  actual  relics  and  monuments.  From  the  historic 
point  of  view,  the  method  Avhich  considers  all  the  arts  in  question 
in  combination,  and  which  unites  the  description  of  all  for  each 
epoch,  is  the  most  natural  and  satisfactory.  The  treatment  of  these 
topics  has,  however,  been  .separatc'(l  in  the  present  l)()ok  on  account 
of  its  necessary  brevity,  and  because  that  kind  of  knowledge  which 
is  most  directly  applicable  to  modern  art  can  be  most  directly  pre- 
sented in  this  wav. 

•  Owen  .Tones,  ''Qi-animar  of  Onianient " ;  "R-arinet,  "Polyrhromatic  Ornament,"  etc.  These 
and  similar  works  are  too  larye  and  expensive  for  private  ownership  in  general,  but  maybe  found 
in  most  public  libraries. 


I  HISTORIC     STUDIES     OF     ART. 

If  the  subjects  of  Architecture,  Sculpture,  and  Painting  are  to  be 
separately  treated  in  the  historical  sketch  proposed,  the  question 
rises  which  shall  be  treated  first.  The  following  reasons  for  gi\nLng 
the  first  attention  to  architecture  are  important. 

It  is  the  subject  through  which  all  the  epochs  of  art  history, 
taken  as  a  whole,  may  be  most  readily  specified  and  distinguished 
and  treated  in  their  proper  sequence.  As  far  as  the  history  of 
painting  is  concerned,  attention  must  be  given  especially  to  the 
Italians,  and  to  certain  particular  centuries  of  their  history,  especially 
the  14th,  15th,  16th,  and  17th  centuries.  As  far  as  the  history  of 
sculpture  is  concerned,  preponderant  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
ancient  Greeks.  But  in  the  history  of  architecture,  all  the  great  his- 
toric nations  have  been,  in  their  individual  ways,  almost  equally  great. 
Every  epoch  claims  a  nearly  equal  amount  of  interest  and  attention. 
Thus  the  sequence,  distinction,  and  designations  of  the  epochs  of  art 
history  in  general  are  most  easily  and  clearlj^  studied  in  architecture. 

Architecture  is  the  art  in  connection  Vvith  which  sculpture  and 
painting  took  their  rise,  and  with  which  they  have  always  been, 
in  the  greatest  times,  very  closely  related.  The  most  famous  works 
of  sculpture  in  existence  are  the  Elgin  ]\Iarbles  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum in  London,  Avhich  were  the  architectural  decorations  of  a 
Greek  temple.  The  most  famous  pictures  in  existence  are  the  wall 
paintings  by  Michael  Angelo  and  by  Raphael  in  Rome— the  archi- 
tectural decorations  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  and  of  the  Palace  of  the 
Vatican.  The  most  famous  sculptures  of  Greek  antiquity  were  the 
colossal  gold  and  ivory  statues,  to  hold  which  the  ancient  temples 
were  erected.  The  most  important  ancient  paintings  now  in  exist- 
ence are  the  wall  paintings  of  the  houses  in  Pompeii.  It  is  evident, 
then,  that  architecture  should,  if  studied  separately,  be  studied  first. 

Architecture  is  the  most  practical  and  necessary  of  the  three 
arts,  and  the  one  which  may  be  most  readily  studied  by  examples, 
since  these  surround  us  on  all  sides.  Some  slight  knowledge  as  to 
the  so-called  "styles"  of  modern  buildings  is,  moreover,  a  matter  of 
almost  necessary  education. 

Finally,  since  historical  forms  have  had  an  overwhelming  influence 
on  the  "  styles "  of  modern  buildings,  the  necessity  for  a  historical 
treatment  of  the  subject  of  art  in  general  is  here  the  most  obviously 
apparent;  and  the  general  history  of  art  may  be  most  easily  ap- 
proached in  this  way. 


I.     ST.  PATRICKS  CATHEDRAL,  N.  Y. 


r~- 


■.  ,-,-f.-  il 


2.     VOTIVE  CHURCH,  VIENNA. 


B  U  T  T  11 E  S  S  E  D     G  O  1'  U  I  G     STYLE.  5 

HISTORIC      STYLES"    IN    MODERN    ARCHITECTURE. 

It  is  a  very  general  presuinpiion,  or  at  least  a  prejudice  constantly 
apparent,  that  our  modern  buildings,  if  pretentious  of  artistic  char- 
acter, must  exhibit  or  belong  to  some  "style."  The  prejudice  is  a 
manifest  mistake  to  every  artistically  educated  person,  and  is  only 
a  result  of  the  fact  that,  for  several  centuries,  imitations  of  historic 
buildings  have  been  the  rage.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  many  or  most  of 
the  best  modern  buildings  do  not  belong  to  any  "style"  at  all,  mdess 
it  be  one  of  which  we,  as  moderns,  are  iniconscious,  but  which  may 
be  seen,  at  some  future  time,  to  represent  the  peculiar  needs  and 
conditions  of  the  century,  by  general  resemblances  which  are  not 
now  apparent. 

To  devote  attention  first  to  the  modern  Imildings  which  are  imi- 
tations of  historic  styles,  is  not  to  imply  that  such  imitations  are 
especially  to  be  commended.  It  is,  however,  a  matter  of  general 
knowledge,  essential  to  the  comprehension  of  the  latest  tendencies 
of  modern  art,  to  imderstand  what  these  modern  historic  stjdes  have 
been,  and  especially  because  these  latest  tendencies  are  more  or  less 
antagonistic  to  them. 

Three  of  these  "styles"  are  especially  jironounced  in  character, 
and  have  been  especially  affected — each  to  an  extent  that  in  some 
cities,  fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago,  scarcely  a  building  could  be 
found  which  did  not  show  the  influence  of  some  one  of  them. 
These  three  stvles  mav  be  designated  as  the  Greek,  the  Renais- 
Banco,  and  the  buttressed  Gothic.  There  are  many  instances  where 
a  spectator,  standing  in  one  place,  may  jjoint  to  examples  of  all 
three. 

The  Buttressed  Gothic  Style.'' — The  Catholic  Cathedral  of  Xew 
York  and  the  famous  Votive  Church  in  A'ienna  have  been  chosen 
as  examples  of  the  modern  buttrossod  Gothic  (Illustrations  1  and  2). 
The  traits  of  the  stylo,  as  foimd  in  the  exterior  appearance,  are  the 
pointed  arch  (frequently  surmounted  by  an  acutely  angled  gable 
ornament) ;  the  tracery  of  masom-y  divisions  in  the  windows  in 
manifold  geometrical  patterns;  the  use  of  similar  tracery  (originally 
imitated  from  that  of  the  windows)  on  the  masonry  surface ;  the 
use   of  ornamental  carvings  based  on  forms  of  natural  foliage,  and 

•  The  word  "  Gothic "  13  coniraonly  used  alone,  but  the  words  "  buttressed  Gothic  '  are  used 
in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  the  "  Italian  Gothic  "  stylo  subsequently  mentioned. 


6 


GREEK     AND     RENAISSANCE     STYLES. 


the  use  of  the  buttress— z.  e.,  a  perpendicular  masonr}'  abutment 
placed  at  the  corners  of  the  towers,  and  at  equidistant  intervals 
along  the  walls — in  the  latter  case  frequently  surmounted  by  a  pin- 
nacle with  its  top  decoration  or  "finial." 

The  Greek  and  Renaissance  Styles  may  be,  for  the  moment 
considered  together  as  regards  their  characteristic  forms.  In  both 
styles  the  so-called  "classical  orders  of  architecture"  are  used.*  We 
may  notice  what  the  elements  of  the  classical  orders  are,  by  com- 
paring the  view  of  Girard  College  in  Philadelphia  with  the  Church 
of  the  Madeleine  in  Paris  (Illustrations  3  and  4).     In  these  buildings, 


'']pjj|l|l|!i!»{i|!||||||l||{|l|!{||!l||i|l| 


Doric. 


Ionic. 
Three  Orders  of  Grecian  Architecture. 


Corinlhian. 


(i,  shaft  I  2,  cajntal ;  3,  architrave  ;  h,  frieze ;  ,',  cornice.    The  entire  part  above  the  capital  is  the  entablature.    M 

the  bottom  of  the  shaft  is  the  base.) 

a  portico  or  colonnade  may  be  observed,  which  has  become  so  familiar 
in  modern  architecture  that  its  frequent  appearance  seems  a  mattex- 
of  course.  The  columns  belong  to  one  of  three  classes,  "Doric,'"' 
"Ionic,"  or  "Corinthian"  (see  text-cut),  which  are  most  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  their  capitals,  i.  e,,  by  the  upper  terminal  ornament 
of  the  column.^  Two  lines  of  beams  with  certain  typical  and  un- 
varying decorations  (see  the  ornaments  on  the  Doric  "architrave" 
and  the  horizontal  lines  on  the  Ionic   and  Corinthian  "  frieze ")  are 


*  The  -word  "  Order "  is  applied  in  Classical  and  Renaissance  architecture  either  to  a  single 
column  and  immediate  superstructure,  to  a  series  of  coltunns  and  immediate  superstructure,  or  to 
the  general  Mecorative  system  therewith  connected. 


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GREEK     AND     RENAISSANCE     STYLES.  9 

surinoimted  b}^  a  "cornice."*  At  the  ends  of  the  buildings  the  Unes 
of  the  roof  form  a  gable,  or  "i^ediment."  The  traits  of  the  classic 
orders  need  not  be  more  closely  described  ;U  present,  because  they 
will  be  considered  under  the  chapter  for  the  Greek  Temple  Archi- 
tecture, but  they  will  be  immediately  recognized  as  familiar  appear- 
ances iti  modern  buildings  from  the  diagrams  and  illustrations. 

Distinction  between  the  Greek  and  the  Renaissance  Styles. — This 
lies  in  the  use  made  of  the  forms  and  "orders"  in  (luestion.  If  the 
forms  and  "orders"  are  portions  of  the  necessary  construction  of 
the  building,  the  style  is  Greek.  For  instance,  in  the  Girard  College, 
and  the  Madeleine  (3  and  -1),  the  gable  results  from  the  construc- 
tion of  the  roof;  but  in  the  Boston  City  Hall  (5)  the  same  form  is 
an  ornament  above  the  upper  central  window,  Avhich  could  be 
removed  without  destroying  the  essential  parts  of  the  building.  In 
the  Renaissance  style  there  are  also  jiK.difications,  or  rather  varia- 
tions, of  the  gable  ornament,  which  may  be  observed  in  many 
examples  in  every  city,  as  well  as  in  many  pieces  of  fiu'niture.  The 
triangular  gable  is  frequently  broken  at  the  center.  Its  lines  rise 
toward  the  upper  angle,  but  do  not  meet  it.  This  variation  would 
be  impossible  or  very  imnatural  in  the  gables  of  3  and  4,  because 
the  angle  is  there  formed,  as  in  other  similar  roofs,  by  beams  which 
lean  against  and  support  one  another ;  whereas  in  the  smaller  and 
purely  ornamental  use  of  the  same  form,  this  construction  is  only 
imitative,  and  the  modification  of  the  original  form  is  not  i)hysically 
difficult.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  two  other  modilications  of  the 
gable  ornament  which  are  equally  familiar,  in  which  the  arc  of  a 
circle  is  used  :  sometimes  broken  at  the  center  and  sometimes  un- 
broken. The  unbroken  arc  appears  in  the  Paris  Opera  House  (6). 
Once  more  it  may  be  observed  that  such  a  curved  line  would  not 
naturally  appear  at  the  ends  of  a  building  as  the  result  of  the  con- 
struction of  its  roof ;  and  that  it  is  a  purely  ornamental  modifica- 
tion of  the  original  constructive  triangular  shape.  It  sometimes 
happens,  however,  that  buildings  have  the  ornamental  variations 
noticed,  built  on  to  their  own  roof  construction,  rising  above  it  or 
covering    it    up.     Such  buildings   are   also  Renaissance  in  style;    but 

*  A  cornice  is  the  horizontal  molding  or  series  of  moldings  crowning  the  top  of  a  building  or 
of  the  walls  of  a  room.  The  words  "  arfhitnive  "  and  "  frieze  "  are  toolinically  applied  to  distinguish 
the  lower  and  upper  beam  of  the  classic  ordei-s,  but  the  word  "  ardiitrave  "  may  also  mean  any 
line  of  beams,  and  the  word  "frieze"  also  means  a  horizontal  band  of  sculptured  ornament  in 
any  use  or  position. 


10  GREEK     AND     REXAISSAXCE     STYLES. 

these  are  instances  where  the  ornamental  style  has  reacted  on  the 
construction  and  disguised  it. 

We  will  now  apply  the  distinction  between  Greek  style  and  Re- 
naissance, as  to  use  of  the  similar  forms  in  each,  to  the  cornice 
and  double  line  of  beams.  In  3,  4,  and  similar  examples,  the  cornice 
is  seen  to  be  the  decorated  projecting  line  or  edge  of  the  roof 
(which  continues  also  in  a  straight  Ime  under  the  gable  angle). 
The  lines  of  beams  are  portions  of  the  portico  and  essential  parts  of 
it.  If  they  were  removed,  a  part  of  the  building  Avould  fall  down. 
On  the  other  hand,  compare  the  double  line  of  beams  with  con- 
nected cornice  as  they  appear  in  5  and  6,  and  on  other  examples  of 
the  Renaissance,  as  found  in  all  modern  cities.  Here  they  are  seen 
to  l^e  decorative  imitations,  connected  with  the  columns  or  pilasters, 
Avhich  are  also  imitative.  Such  columns  attached  to  a  wall  surface 
for  a  decorative  purpose,  without  constructive  necessitj^,  are  some- 
times called  "engaged"  columns.  In  Example  5  of  Renaissance 
herewith,  the  jutting  back  and  forth  of  the  beam  lines  is  seen  to  be 
the  result  of  the  fact  that  the  columns  or  pilasters  are  not  em- 
ployed for  uses  of  support,  in  which  latter  case  the  beams,  running 
above  them,  would  be  necessarily  straight.  Thus  the  jutting  or 
"breaking"  back  and  forth  of  such  lines  is  also  a  trait  of  Renais- 
sance style,  as  distinguished  from  the  Greek.  (The  term  pilaster 
generally  applies  to  the  j)rojected  imitation  of  a  square  pillar,  but 
is  also  sometimes  used  of  "engaged"  rounded  columns.  Both  forms 
are  seen  in  5.) 

Order  in  which  the  Historic  Styles  were  Revived. — Although  the 
three  architectural  styles  just  specified  are  found  at  present  in  con- 
temporaneous examples,  they  did  not  all  come  into  use  at  the  same 
time.  For  several  centuries  the  Renaissance  was  used  exclusively. 
This  was  the  first  of  the  modern  styles.  It  first  appeared  in  archi- 
tectural examples  about  and  soon  after  the  middle  of  the  15th  cent- 
ury in  Italy.  It  spread  thence  quite  rapidly  to  all  countries  of 
Northern  Europe,  about  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  and 
soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  was  universally  and 
exclusively  employed  in  all  European  countries.  This  universal  and 
exclusive  use  continued  till  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century; 
after  which  the  first  examples  of  the  Greek  Temple  style  began  to 
appear.  This  largely  supplanted,  although  it  by  no  means  entirely 
replaced,  the  Renaissance  style,  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  18th 


5.     CITY    HALL,    BOSTON. 


TILE     ITALIAN      li  K -N  A  1  SS  AN  C  E.  I'o 

century  and  the  lirst  quarter  of  the  li'th  criiiury.  In  its  turn  the 
Greek  Temple  style  was  then  largely  supplanted,  especially  iu 
churches,  by  the  buttressed  Gothic,  wliit-h  (with  some  extremely 
rare  and  local  exceptions)  had  not  been  previously  used  since  the 
close  of  the  Middle  Ages, 


This  succession  of  styles  corresponds  to  certain  phases  of  modern  literary  and 
historic  study,  and  was  occasioned  by  it.  As  far  as  the  Renaissance  stjde  is  con- 
cerned, its  appearance  is  also  related  to  the  broadest  and  most  general  aspects 
of  modern  history — those  which  relate  to  its  Italian  origin  and  first  develop- 
ment. At  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  a  civilization  had  developed  in  Italy 
which,  spreading  thence,  replaced  the  medieval  and  became  the  modern.  The 
word  "Renaissance,"  in  its  broadest  sense,  applies  to  this  movement  of  history 
and  civilization,  and  is  used  with  the  meaning  that  it  was  connected  with  a 
re-birth  or  revival  of  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  culture.  In  matters  of  litera- 
ture and  art,  especially,  the  Italians  of  the  period  in  question  were  profoundly 
sensible  of  their  debt  to  the  ancients  and  copied  them  in  every  possible  way. 
The  word  "Renaissance"  is  thus,  in  the  next  narrower  sense,  applied  to  the 
revival  of  letters,  which  at  this  time  was  distinctly  dependent  on  the  studies  of 
the  ancient  authors.  The  word  is,  then,  also  appliccl  to  tlic  general  art  of  the 
period — which  was  that  of  Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  and  contemporaries,  and  the 
other  great  Italian  artists  who  preceded  and  followed  them.  Finally  it  is  applied 
to  the  architectural  style  of  the  period.  This  plainly  reflects  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  movement  in  letters  and  civilization — being  a  copy  of  the  orna- 
mental details  of  the  Roman  ruins.  Hence  the  use  of  the  Greek  forms  in  the 
Renaissance  already  illustrated.  These  had  been  adopted  by  the  Romans  from 
the  Greeks  with  the  modifications  pointed  out,  and  icere  copied  from  them.  The 
Renaissance  style  is  .simply  a  revival  of  the  Roman  ornamental  style,  and  the 
distinctions  made  between  Renaissance  and  Greek  style  are  also  the  distinctions 
between  Greek  and  Roman.  The  Renaissance  style  is  thus  of  peculiar  historical 
interest  by  its  relations  to  the  origins  and  beginnings  of  modern  history  and 
modern  civilization  in  general. 

The  Italians  of  the  15th  and  Kith  centuries  were  more  enthusiastic  tlian 
critical  in  their  historical  and  literary  studies,  and  were  not  themselves  at  all 
attentive  to  the  existence  of  Greek  elements  and  influences  in  the  Roman  art  and 
literature.  They  took  these  last  as  they  found  them,  without  inquiring  into  their 
derivation.  National  patriotism  led  them  to  exalt  their  own  country  r.s  having 
been  the  center  and  motive  power  of  the  Roman  Empire.  The  derivation  of  their 
own  language  from  the  Latin  made  its  study  especially  easy  and  natural  for  them. 

The  Roman  Imperial  periotl  was  the  latest  period  of  antiquity,  and  the  earlier 
Greek  culture  had  been  so  absorbed  and  a.ssimilated  by  it  as  to  have  lost  the 
apparent  evidences  of  its  own  independent  and  earlier  character.  At  the  time  of 
the  Renaissance  the  Turks  were  in  pos.session  of  the  Greek  territories.  Travel  in 
them  was  rarely  undertaken,  and  never  for  puiT^oses  of  historical  study.  Many 
learned  Italians  were  acquainted  with  the  Greek  language,  but  still  the  relations 
of  Greek  and  Roman  civilization  were  not  critically  studied. 

All   these  points  serve  to  explain   why   the  copies  of  the  Greek  Temple  style 


1-1  rHEGREEKEEYIV>4L. 

which  began  to  be  made  in  the  last  half  of  the  18th  century  nad  not  been  made 
before.  It  was  not  until  this  time  that  the  prejudice  in  favor  of  the  study  of 
Latin  in  preference  to  the  study  of  Greek  was  overthrown,  and  that  the  disposi- 
tion to  regard  all  relics  of  antiquity  found  on  Italian  soil  as  relics  of  Roman 
civilization  was  abandoned.  Meantime,  from  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century 
to  the  middle  of  the  ISth  century,  all  Europe  had  been  controlled  by  the  Italian 
taste  and  fashions,  and  by  the  prejudices  and  peculiar  historical  misconception  just 
explained. 

The  beginning  of  the  Greek  movement,  as  distinguished  from  the  Renaissance, 
dates  from  the  Prussian  John  Winckelmann  and  his  studies,  made  at  Rome  after 
1756,  in  ancient  sculpture.  The  statues,  then  so  abundant  in  Rome,  were  first 
proven  by  him  to  be  in  general  copies  of  Greek  originals.  But  this  discovery 
reacted  at  once  on  questions  of  literature  and  history.  If  the  Roman  sculpture 
had  been  Greek  in  its  influences  and  subjects,  it  was  apparent  that  the  Roman 
literature  must  have  the  same  dependence.  So  far,  literary  taste  in  Europe  had 
been  unanimous  (at  least  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries)  in  pronouncing  the  Latin 
authors  superior  to  the  Greek.*  But  the  absurdity  of  considering  a  copy  superior 
to  an  original  was  apparent.  Hence  a  revolution  in  taste,  from  which  the  19th 
century  art  and  literature  took  their  inspiration.  The  study  of  Greek  authors, 
Greek  art,  and  Greek  history  became  the  fashion,  and  the  first  systematic  journeys 
for  purposes  of  study  were  undertaken  in  the  Gi'eek  territories. 

Many  other  manifestations  of  the  Greek  movement  might  be  pointed  out  besides 
that  one  A\ith  which  we  are  immediately  concerned,  in  the  copies  of  Greek  Temple 
architecture.  The  most  imi^ortant  was  the  liberation  of  Greece  from  Turkish  rule 
in  1829  and  the  foundation  of  the  modern  independent  kingdom  of  Greece.  This 
was  due  to  the  sympathies  and  support  of  European  diplomatists  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  favorable  sentiments  awakened  by  the  studies  of  Greek  antiquity. 
An  interesting  instance  of  the  enthusiasm  of  the  time  is  offered  by  the  poet  Lord 
BjTon,  who  went  to  Greece  to  take  part  in  the  war  against  the  Turkish  rule,  but 
died  soon  after. 

Another  important  phase  of  this  movement  is  found  in  German  literature  as 
developed  by  Lessing,  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  their  contemporaries.  This  is  univer- 
sally known  to  have  had  as  inspiration  the  Greek  studies  inaugurated  by  Winckel- 
mann. 

In  female  dress,  the  style  known  as  that  of  the  Directory  or  of  Martha  Wash- 
ington was  again  an  effort  to  return  to  Greek  simplicity.  In  music,  the  operas 
of  Gluck  are  glorious  examples  of  a  revival  of  the  Greek  spirit. 

As  regards  the  genei'al  relation  of  the  Greek  architectural  revival  to  these 
other  phases  of  interest  in  ancient  Greek  history  and  literature,  it  may  be  noticed 
that  travel  in  Greek  countries  for  j^urposes  of  study  was  first  undertaken  as  a 
result  of  this  general  interest.  Until  travel  for  such  purposes  was  thus  under- 
taken, no  publications  had  been  made  as  to  the  Athenian  or  other  Greek  ruins, 
and  there  was  no  general  knowledge  about  them.  An  interesting  evidence  of  this 
ignorance  is  offered  by  an  incident  in  the  life  of  Winckelmann.  During  his 
residence  in  Rome,  it  was  proposed  that  he  should  undertake  a  journey  with 
Italian  friends  around  the  coasts  of  Southern  Italy  to  inspect  the  Greek  ruins 
which  were  supposed  to  be  there.     It  was  not  known  in  Rome  in  the  middle  of 

*  Compare  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Addison. 


THE     GREEK     KEVIVAL.  15 

the  18th  century  that  no  Greek  ruins  were  to  be  found  in  Southern  Italy,  except- 
ing those  already  known  at  Paestum. 

If  explorations  on  the  site  of  ancient  Greek  settlements  were  thus  backward 
even  in  Italy,  it  may  be  argued  how  little  was  known  then  of  the  ruins  in  Sicily 
and  in  Greece. 

Since  the  "  Greek  Revival "  was  especially  vigorous  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
18th  century  and  in  the  early  19th  century,  and  since  this  period  is  the  first  to 
which  early  American  buildings  of  importance  now  standing  belong — the  Greek 
style  is  the  oldest  apparent  in  American  public  buildings.  It  is  represented  by 
numerous  examples  in  cities  like  Philadelphia,  which  were  of  great  national  im- 
portance in  the  Revolution  and  the  period  following — and  in  Washington,  where 
the  traditions  of  this  period  have  continued  to  influence  the  later  buildings.  The 
Greek  revival  was,  in  fact,  very  closely  connected  with  the  movement  which 
caused  the  American  Revolution  and  the  French  Revolution.  Both  revolutions 
were  very  largely  inspired  by  republican  ideals  drawn  from  the  study  of  "Plu- 
tarch's Lives."  This  work  was  universally  read  at  the  time,  under  the  influence 
of  the  newly-rising  studies  of  Greek  authors. 

It  appears  from  the  foregoing  matter  that  the  revival  of  Greelc  Temple  archi- 
tecture was  the  result  of  a  literary  impulse,  and  of  historical  studies,  which 
showed  the  Greeks  to  be  the  real  originators  of  that  Roman  civilization  which  had 
so  filled  men's  minds  in  the  earlier  Renaissance  or  Italian  stage  of  modern  history. 
The  Italians  having  set  the  fashion  of  copying  ancient  buildings,  the  habit  con- 
tinued— Greek  ruins,  instead  of  Roman,  being  taken  as  models.  The  study  of  the 
original  Greek  monuments  of  architecture  showed  that  the  columns,  capitals,  and 
other  details  were  of  much  greater  beauty,  in  general,  than  the  Roman  copies 
of  the  same.  The  proportions  of  the  original  Greek  monuments  were  more  refined 
and  the  execution  of  the  details  was  more  vigorous.  It  was  still  further  observed 
that  in  Greek  architecture  each  part  had  a  structural  meaning  ■  and  a  necessary 
constructive  function.  The  gable  was  the  expression  of  the  roof  lines ;  the  cornice 
was  a  similar  expression  ;  the  beams  were  a  necessary  portion  of  the  portico ;  the 
columns  were  structural  supports ;  the  capital  and  base  were  structural  elements 
at  the  points  of  support  and  pressure.  It  was  observed  that  the  ornamental 
diversion  of  these  structural  forms  from  their  natural  meaning  and  use  was  a 
departure  from  the  Greek  ideal  of  relation  between  form  and  design,  ornament 
and  construction. 

The  Gothic  Revival. — Toward  the  close  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th  century 
a  new  reaction,  however,  set  in,  which  found  its  expression  in  the  buttressed 
Gothic.  The  word  "Gothic"  was  first  used  by  the  Italians  of  the  Renaissance 
as  applied  to  architecture,  and  they  used  the  word,  as  we  still  do  when  we  speak 
of  the  "Goths  and  Vandals"  as  barbarian;  of  "the  act  of  a  Vandal,"  etc.  The 
Italians  applied  the  word  "Gothic"  to  all  North  European  architecture,  meaning 
that  it  was  a  barbaric  style.  As  the  buttressed  Gothic  was  the  latest  of  the 
medieval  styles,  and  most  numerously  represented  by  existing  structures,  the  word 
Gothic  became  attached  to  it  especially.  * 

It  was  the  spread  of  Italian  Renaissance  civilization  over  Northern  Europe  in 
the  16th  century  which  stopped  the  work  on  the  old  medieval  cathedrals  of  which 
so  many — for  instance,  the  Cologne  cathedral — were  left  unfinished.  The  same 
Italian  influence,  which  carried  with  itself  the  Renaissance  architecture,  carried 
with  itself  the  prejudice  against    the  earlier  style    as    being    ugly  and    barbaria 


16  THE     GOTHIC     KEVIVAL. 

Thus,  in  the  diary  of  the  English  author  Evelyn,  who  traveled  through  France 
and  Italy  in  the  17th  century,  we  find  him  constantly  noting  of  such  and  such 
a  building,  that  it  was  "  only  Gothic."     This  prejudice  continued  in  the  18th  century. 

The  copies  of  medieval  buildings  which  began  in  the  19th  century  with  revivals 
of  the  buttressed  Gothic  were  like  the  preceding  copies  of  Greek  temples,  the 
result  and  expression  of  a  newly-developed  historic  study.  The  standards  of  taste 
which  had  been  drawn  from  the  Greeks,  being  those  of  nature  and  of  natural 
vigor,  proved  effectual  in  vindicating  the  greatness  of  art  and  of  civilization  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  movement  began  with  the  revival  of  interest  in  Shakespeare, 
who,  though  not  medieval  in  point  of  fact,  had  been  so  regarded  by  the  ISth 
century.  Contempt  for  Shakespeare  as  a  barbarian  was  the  almost  universal 
verdict  of  the  18th  century — for  instance,  of  the  English  King  George  the  Third, 
of  the  Prussian  King  Frederick  the  Great,  etc.  The  German  Lessing  was  the  first 
in  the  18th  century  to  insist  on  Shakespeare's  greatness  and  to  critically  demon- 
strate it  {Hamburg ische  Dramatiirgie),  and  in  this  line  he  was  followed  and  sup- 
ported by  the  German  poet  Goethe.  With  both  these  critics,  by  whom  especially, 
next  to  Winckelmann,  the  taste  of  the  earlier  18th  century  was  overthrown,  the 
standards  of  Greek  taste  had  been  the  inspiration.  From  the  appreciation  of 
Shakespeare,  attention  turned  to  the  still  earlier  time  of  the  Middle  Ages  proper. 
In  England  the  medieval  movement  appears  especially  in  the  novels  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott.  The  popularity  of  these  novels,  when  published,  was  due  as  much  to  their 
novelty  of  subject  as  to  their  artistic  merits.  So  we  find  that  Goethe's  first  dramatic 
success,  the  "  Goetz  von  Berlichingen,"  owed  its  fabulous  success  to  its  choice  of  a 
medieval  subject.  The  translation  of  this  drama  into  English  was  the  first  literary 
work  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  From  the  attention  which  was  thus  devoted  to  the 
history,  literature,  and  art  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which  had  been  so  long  despised 
under  the  Renaissance  influences,  the  buttressed  Gothic  dates  its  rise  as  a  modern 
architectural  style. 

Mixture  of  Renaissance  and  Greek  Temple  Styles. — Although  iP  is  apparent 
from  the  foregoing  explanations  that  the  Greek  Temple  style  was  originally  a 
reaction  against  the  Renaissance,  it  has  since  its  rise  been  very  frequently  mixed 
with  it.  We  may  always  separate  the  two  elements,  when  found  in  one  building, 
by  understanding  that  the  forms  are  Greek  if  used  structurally  in  the  dimensions 
of  the  whole  of  any  one  part  of  a  building.  Thus  in  the  White  House  at  Wash- 
ington, the  projecting  portico  shows  the  Greek  influence,  and  the  sides  of  the 
building  itself  are  in  Renaissance  style.     Such  cases  are  every-where  to  be  observed. 

It  is  true  that  this  mixture  was  also  found  in  the  Roman  buildings,  and  that 
the  forms  of  the  Greek  Temple  construction  proper,  also  continued  in  use  in  the 
ancient  Roman  period.  But  as  far  as  the  ruins  in  Rome  and  Italy  are  concerned, 
there  were  no  remains  of  this  construction  which  attracted  the  general  attention 
of  the  Renaissance  imitators,  and  the  combination  in  question,  with  rare  exceptions 
in  the  old  Italian  Renaissance,  is  not  found  in  modern  times,  until  after  the  time 
of  the  Greek  revival.  In  the  old  Italian  Renaissance  style,  structural  colonnades 
and  porticoes  are  common,  but  almost  invariablj'  in  the  minor  dimensions  of  the 
individual  stories  of  the  building,  and  the  columns  frequently  support  arches, 
which  they  never  do  in  the  Greek  Temple  construction,  or  in  the  Roman  style, 
where  arches  are  always  supported  by  masses  of  masonry  (piers). 

Examples  of  Renaissance. — The  old  Italian  Renaissance,  of  which  the  19th  century 
Renaissance  in  America  is  a  continuation,  through  the  later  European  copies,  will 


M  O  D  E  R  X     G  K  ]•:  E  K     S  T  'i'  T.  E .  17 

be  illustrated  ami  explaiin^l  in  a  latiT  historical  section.  Some  examples  of  the 
1  !>th  century  Renaissance  in  America  may  now  be  noted.  In  Xeiv  York,  one  of 
the  best  artistic  examples  is  the  old  City  Hall ;  the  most  pretentious  examples 
are  tha  new  Post-otlife  and  the  new  City  Hall.  Most  of  the  "brown-stone  fronts," 
and  a  very  larg<>  proportion  of  the  business  buildings  of  New  York,  are  in  this 
style.  In  Philadelphia,  the  new  "Public  Buildings"  and  the  new  Post-office  are 
pretentious  examples  of  Renaissance ;  in  Chicago,  the  new  City  Hall ;  in  Boston, 
the  City  Hall;  in  Brooklyn,  tlie  City  Hall;  in  Montreal,  the  Cathedral,  are  of  the 
same  style.  A  large  proportion  of  the  business  structures  in  most  American  cities 
belong  to  it.  In  Europe,  the  new  Opera  Houses  of  Paris  and  Vienna  are  noted 
and  conspicuous  examples  of  the  19th  century  period. 

Critical  Notes  on  the  19th  Century  Renaissance. — Although  the  Renaissance  has 
outlived  the  reactions  of  the  Greek  and  Gothic  revivals,  as  apparent  in  the  recent 
dates  of  the  structures  named,  it  has  no  hold  on  the  best  artistic  taste  of  the  day. 
Some  critical  reasons  for  this  decline  in  favor  will  be  noted  in  the  later  historical 
account  of  the  style,  but  it  may  be  at  once  said  that  the  19th  century  examples 
{of  (his  style)  do  not  remotely  approach  the  excellence  of  the  older  Italian  and 
other  older  Renaissance  European  buildings.  The  lOth  century  examples  are 
generally  over-ornamented,  uneasy  in  effei;t  and  mechanical  in  detail — wanting  in 
large  proportions  and  simplicity  of  composition.  The  Vanderbilt  mansions  in  Xcw 
York  may,  however,  be  quoted  as  notable  (exceptions  to  this  general  rule,  and  ther^ 
are,  of  course,  other  exceptions. 

Critical  Notes  on  the  Modern  Greek  Style. — In  the  early  days  of  tlie  Greek 
Temple  copies,  the  presumption  existed  that  they  were  to  be  considered  as  true 
revivals  of  Greek  art,  and  that  the  imitation  of  Greek  art  was  the  true  mission  of 
the  modern.  A  more  dispassionate  and  later  attitude  of  taste  has  concluded  that 
the  best  imitation  of  Greek  art  is  that  which  strives  for  a  similar  fidelity  to  the 
surrounding  conditions  of  time,  place,  and  civilization — that  the  only  way  for  the 
moderns  to  rival  the  Greeks  is  to  be  equally  true  to  themselves.  In  richer  words, 
t!io  Greek  art  is  now  .studied  for  its  own  independent  beauty  and  as  a  means  to 
general  principles  rather  than  as  offering  examples  for  imitative  repetition.  The 
later  modern  studies  in  Greek  Temple  architecture  have  also  resulted  in  discoveries 
which  shov/  that  the  modern  copies  are,  and  must  of  necessity  be,  lacking  in 
most  important  peculiarities  of  the  originals.  The  examination  of  these  differences 
■will  be  one  aim  of  the  historic  sketch  of  the  old  Greek  tenijiles  in  subsequent 
pages.  It  can  not  be  denied,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  modern  Greek  Temple  copies 
are  interesting  and  effective  buildings  ;  /.  e.,  those  of  the  late  18th  and  early  lOtn 
century.  Their  simplicity  of  taste  is  not  affected.  It  really  existed  in  the  time 
which  produced  them,  and  the  sjTnpathy  with  Greek  art  which  they  represented, 
though  less  sci  'utific  and  less  well-informed  than  our  own,  was  in  its  way,  perhaps, 
more  thoroughly  genuine.  "With  the  general  liiffusion  of  the  studies  and  discoveries 
of  the  Greek  revival,  the  impulse  which  had  produced  the  temple  copies  died  away 
— especially  as  the  style  of  the  Greek  temples  was  by  no  means  adapted  to  the 
general  uses  and  necessities  of  the  modern  buildings  which  took  on  their  guise. 
They  were  also  thrown  into  the  background  by  the  later  fashions  of  the  Gothic 
revival. 

Examples  of  the  Greek  Temple  Style. — The  Rush  Library,  in  Philadelphia,  is  a 
rare  instance  of  a  fine  recent  construction  in  this  style.  Aside  from  the  common- 
place porticoes  of  Renaissance  public  buildings,  constructions  of  the  Greek  Temple 


18  MODERN     BUTTRESSED     GCTHIC. 

style  will  generally  date  earlier  than  1850  or  1840.  Among  the  examples  in  Nem 
York,  are  the  Custom-house,  Sub-treasury,  the  old  St.  Paul's,  the  facade  of  the  old 
Columbia  Law  School  in  Lafayette  Place,  and  a  number  of  old  churches.  Among 
the  examples  in  Philadelphia  are  the  Rush  Library,  the  old  Post-office,  the  Mint, 
and  Girard  College.  In  Washington,  the  Capitol,  "White  House,  and  other  public 
buildings  are  examples  with  more  or  less  Renaissance  mixture.  In  Boston,  the 
Custom-house  is  an  example  ;  in  New  Haven,  the  old  State  House  and  many  of 
the  older  private  dwellings.  In  Europe,  the  British  Museum,  Bank  of  England, 
and  Church  of  St.  Pancras,  London — the  Church  of  the  Madeleine,  Paris;  the 
Museum,  Berlin;  and  the  Bank  of  Ireland,  Dublin — may  be  mentioned  as  among 
important  examples.     Other  fine  examples  in  Munich. 

Critical  Notes  on  the  Modern  Buttressed  Gothic. — As  a  revolt  against  the'  ab- 
surdity of  making  Christian  churches  in  the  likeness  of  pagan  Greek  temples,  the 
Gothic  revival  did  good  work,  and  its  influence  has  been  much  more  wide-spread 
in  ecclesiastical  than  in  secular  architecture.  In  this  last  field,  the  buttress  con- 
struction is  rarely  convenient.  As  compared  with  the  old  cathedrals,  whose  style 
is  imitated,  there  are  many  inferiorities  in  the  modern  copies.  These  are  all  a 
result  of  the  one  fact  that  the  most  independent  art  is  the  best,  and  that  attention 
to  the  style  of  an  old  building  is  apt  to  withdraw  •  attention  from  the  conditions 
and  necessities  of  a  modern  construction.  In  the  opening  of  the  Gothic  revival, 
the  same  slavish  subservience  to  the  theory  that  modern  buildings  must  of  neces- 
sity exhibit  a  "style,"  which  had  so  long  been  prevalent,  was  apparent. 

The  historic  study  of  the  old  Gothic  buildings  is  especially  valuable  by  reason 
of  the  light  thrown  on  their  methods  as  being  those  of  common  sense  and  con- 
structive necessity  in  their  own  time.  Thus,  for  instance,  these  studies  have 
shown  that  the  buttress  construction  was  originally  designed  to  withstand  the 
thrust  of  a  stone  or  brick  vaulting  (an  arched  interior  roofing),  and  that  the 
"flying"  buttress  especially  had  this  use  and  necessity.  As  in  our  own  time,  so 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  but  less  frequently  than  now,  the  buttress  was  subsequently 
used  to  strengthen  a  wall  which  had  not  this  upper  pressure  of  a  vaulting  t'^ 
resist.  Although  there  is  no  objection  to  a  buttress  construction  for  the  p'orpose 
of  strengthening  a  wall,  the  modern  copies  frequently  imitate  that  use  which 
was  intended  for  vaulted  buildings,  and  which  is  otherwise  unnecessary. 

The  criticism  of  the  modern  buttressed  Gothic  depends  on  the  special  example, 
and  the  best  standard  of  criticism  is  found  in  the  study  of  the  old  examples — the 
modern  building  being  judged,  not  by  the  faithfulness  of  imitation,  but  by  similar 
adherence  to  constructive  necessities.  The  changed  conditions  and  arrangements- 
of  modern  churches  will  naturally  involve  important  departures  from  the  older 
style.  The  freedom  and  independence  with  which  this  style  is  employed,  rather 
than  literal  exactness  of  imitation,  are  the  test  of  excellence. 

Examples  of  the  Modern  Buttressed  Gothic. — These  are  so  universal  in  modern 
church  architecture  that  special  mention  is  unnecessary.  In  Burope,  the  most 
noted  example  is  the  Votive  Church  at  Vienna.  Among  important  secular  build- 
ings of  the  buttressed  Gothic  style  may  be  mentioned  the  Houses  of  Parliament 
in  London.  The  Memorial  Hall  of  Harvard  University  is  a  fine  American  example. 
As  an  example  of  the  Gothic  without  buttresses,  the  church  of  the  Paulist  Fathers 
in  J7ew  York  is  a  fine  example,  and  within  the  observation  and  personal  tastes  of 
the  author,  this  church  and  Trinity  Church,  Boston  (the  latter  not  Gothic),  are  the 
^nest  modern,  examples  of  ecclesiastical  architecture,  especially  as  regards  interiors. 


^-       ''!''•    ''"'^' 


^\V^ 


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ta 
2: 


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.      ,v      VN  1.     n    \  1.1  AN     C.OTHIC.  21 

KoMAN  KSIJL  L     AN  1' 

\l,out    iSr.O,  an,l    sinrc    tho    uMd]e   of    our 

The    R°™^""''"'=~,  ;:  1  Vistoric  stvlos  brgan  to  exhibit  greater 
.er^tuvy,  the  influence  "'  *e  h   tone  st^l  _     J^_.^^^  ^^^^^   ^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

t-d Cevtniu   "-7       ;Xn1  1.U,  .i..u.   and  these  styles 

n,or.  auctly   ava.al.lo    oi      •«^^'  ,„  ,,„„M„ati.,ns,  of  distinctly 

V,         i..„»n  „«,.(1  wu  1  luo.lilication;-,  anu 

have  been  nsiU  K^.uianesque. 

modern  character.    One  of  tl  esc  .  ^^    ^^^^^^^^^^    ,^,    „^^ 

medieval   buikbugs,   that    ">^   S''-  consequently    less 

attracted    attention    first,   ;""    /"^  /  ^l;;-;  ^,,„    ,„,„.„    as   n,o,lcls 
,,,,mero«s   constructions   s,,,.,        .^^.^^^^  _^^  ^^^_^  ^^^^.^,,^,    ,^„,,        .. 

;t7t:cohKua:\:!;;.  the  tenacucy  to  greater  freea,„u  , oacrn 

instructions,  f.  —  to  -J--'— ^que.-Thc  old  Koman- 
Ornamental  Traits  01  tne  ^^^^^   ^__   explainea   as  to   name 

esque   l.erioa,  prcccanig   tl.e     ...  ^^^^^^^^^^  ^^^i^.^_  .,3 

and  characf.r  in  the  proper  -  "  "  ;'^^;^;^^„„j,  Temple  in  Philndcl- 
iudicated  by  Illustrations  7  -"\8' J''.^^ j^  f  \,,„,,  ,,rtain  orna.ueutal 
pWia,  and  All  Souls'  Ch-'f^.'^^^^'l.^'^t  modern  constructions- 
traits,  which  are  thoroughl,  ^f^  ^^  ^^^U  ,om,a  arches. 
plain  masonry  pilasters  ^;°™  ,  ^^^  ^  L,  arches.* 
and  galleries  or  arcades  o  -^«  ''"^  ^,,^  3,,,,^  date,  falls  in  the 
The  Italian  Gothic,  mtroduced  after  tl  ^,^.^.„bility.    The 

^;:tS';ir:a;^y  ^tt.  abo.  --^-:zTTi:tz::2 

and  is  especiaUy  fstingu.^^^^^^^^  ^^^  „,  ^,    „, 

::rm  Xor::-  V  rrr;h^::e~rrr:s 

.hite   and   black,   -'/"'-J";     '     ^j::,,    natation   of  the   old 

courses  of  --"V^     Th    Boln  M  scunr  of  Fine  Arts  (9),  and 
Italian  G,>th.c  P^rta  s.  JThe  Bos  o  ^^^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^  .^^^^^_ 

the  New  York  Acadenn    ot  Design  \s.   ) 

U-ations.      Their    general    appearance   .ul    ^^^'^^^J^,^  ,, 

^molcs-  for  instance,  the  building  of  the   \.  -M.  ^.      , 

Fine  Arts,  and  Peun.  K.  R.  Station  in  PhUadelpnia. 

•     ■,  a  .n^  -ire  easilv  distinguished  fr.>m 
,  Medieval  Komancsduo  columns  and  their  modern  •^-^      ^^       ,,,,•   ,,e  genen^Uy  short 
the  cl^c   when  a  little  attention  ha.s  l^on  ,xud  U,  ^^^J>^  ,^  ,l,e  old  Italian  and  P.san 

-  ^?^i;.et^^cm   -  a^ -^^^^  -«  - 

«T^"^!  ' l^l  "l^a^s  he  found  in  the  capitals. 


rr^C^Z:;::--  in  the  capita., 


2*2  QUEEN     ANNE. 

Criticism  of  the  Modern  Romanesque  and  Italian  Gothic. — The  traits  of  these 
styles  are  combined,  variouslj-  omitted,  or  developed  in  such  modern  and  original 
ways  that  they  offer  in  this  respect  a  peculiar  contrast  to  the  three  styles  first  con- 
sidered. Another  distinction  from  the  three  s^-yles  first  considered  lies  in  the  ex- 
amples which  grade  over  toward  buildings  which  show  little  or  no  influence  of 
Wstoric  style.  These  last  are  as  praiseworthy  as  any,  frequently  the  best.  The  great 
value  of  a  critical  education  in  such  matters,  is  to  free  the  judgment  from  the 
supposition  that  the  building  is  to  be  judged  by  conformity  to  an  old  model.  The 
exact  contrary  is  the  case. 

Criticism  of  Architecture  Distinct  from  the  Question  of  "Style." — The  true  crit- 
ical stand-jjoint  in  modern  building  will  become  apparent,  when  we  remember  that 
the  essential  featm'e  of  a  building  is  the  use  of  its  interior  apartments.  The  build- 
ing is  the  shell  or  envelope  of  an  interior.  Study  of  the  old  styles  will  show  that 
they  are  all  exhibitions  of  work  in  which  this  shell  or  envelope  was  the  expression 
and  result  of  the  interior  construction,  or  intimately  related  to  it.  AVe  may  as  well 
esteem  a  person  for  the  ornaments  or  for  the  clotliing  worn,  as  judge  a  building 
solely  by  the  exterior  ornament,  and  this  is  all  there  is  of  "style"  in  modern 
Romanesque  and  modern  Italian  Gfothic.  Thus  the  modern  Romanesque  and  Italian 
Gothic  buildings  are  to  be  critically  considered,  according  to  the  feeling  apparent 
in  their  construction  for  the  construction  itself.  The  introduction  of  these  styles 
marks  an  advance  in  taste,  simply  because  the  ornament  used  is  at  least  susceptible 
of  this  constructional  I'elation.  As  in  dress,  so  in  buildings,  the  best  taste  is  often 
apparent  in  the  quietest  and  simplest  appearance.  Buildings  may  have  the  greatest 
artistic  value,  in  which  only  plain  brick  or  rough  stone  surface  is  employed.  The 
Italian  Gothic  and  the  Romanesque  exhibit  a  return  to  plain  surface  (as  regards 
projections),  in  opposition  to  the  expensive  and  decoratively  overloaded  buildings 
of  the  modern  Renaissance.  Thus,  it  is  rather  for  their  want  of  "style,"  as  com- 
pared with  the  three  styles  first  mentioned,  than  for  any  thing  else  that  the  modern 
Romanesque  and  modern  Italian  Gothic  deserve  praise. 

"  Queen  Anne." — The  modern  prejudice  in  favor  of  historic  styles 
has  frequently  led  decorators  and  artists  to  emploj^  names  or  desig- 
nations, to  Avhich  they  themselves  are  really  indifferent  or  superior, 
and  the  influence  of  fashion  has  often  created  or  spread  a  designa- 
tion, and  attached  it  to  many  objects  to  which  it  reallj'  does  not 
belong  at  all.  This  has  been  the  case  with  the  so-called  style  of 
"Queen  Anne."  The  early  18th  century  (the  time  of  Queen  Anne) 
is,  in  the  architecture  and  decoration,  both  of  England  and  the 
Co'itinent  of  Europe,  part  of  the  Renaissance  period  ;  but  very  many 
domestic  buildings  were  made  which  had  little  or  no  Renaissance 
ornament.  In  inany  cases  where  the  Renaissance  form  appeared,  it 
was  in  the  window-gable  or  roof-gable  only,  not  in  the  columnar 
ornaments.  The  old  "  Queen  Anne  "  buildings  in  question,  i.  e.,  those 
which  gave  rise  to  the  modern  designation,  were  of  brick  or  of 
wood,  and  hence   not   adapted   to   the   columnar  surface   ornaments 


c 
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11.  "Queen  Ahhe"  Building,  Newport,  R.  I. 

12.  'Queen  Anne"  Country  House,  Lawrence,  L.  I. 


SUMMAUr     OF     HISTORIC     STYLES.  25 

which  were  used  in  the  same  period  for  pretentious  stone  structures. 
From  the  imitation  of  these  brick  or  wooden  structures,  frequently 
without  any  ornament  whatever,  and  only  distinguished  by  pictur- 
esque  irregularity  of  construction,  has  grown  the  modern  style  of 
"Queen  Anne,"  and  also  the  modern  habit  ut  calling  every  thing 
"Queen  Anne"  which  is  new  and  picturesque.  Hundreds  of  build- 
ings are  termed  "Queen  Anne"  by  the  public  for  Avhich  the  archi- 
tects themselves  would  refuse  to  give  the  name  of  any  style  as 
designation.  The  so-called  "  Queen  Anne  "  is  only  a  furtlicr  develop- 
ment (but  more  especially  in  domestic  and  country-house  architect- 
ure) of  the  tendencies  anIucIi  Romanesque  and  Italian  Gothic  first 
exhibited  in  imblic  and  city  buildings — of  the  tendency  toward 
modern  freedom  and  modern  independence,  Ilhistrations  11  and  12 
may  serve  to  indicate  the  class  of  buildings  in  question. 

Criticism  of  the  "Queen  Anne"  Style. — Queen  Aime  buildings  are  therefore  to 
be  judged  not  by  resemblance  to  any  set  type,  but  by  the  common  sense  and  good 
taste  shown  in  the  exhibition  of  the  construction,  and  by  the  correspondence  of  the 
building  in  outer  forms  to  its  interior  arrangements.  The  influence  of  fashion  has 
led  many  builders  to  adopt  the  "Queen  Anne"  style  from  the  outside,  so  to  speak, 
and  to  force  the  interior  aiTangement  to  coiTespond  to  preconceived  and  manufact- 
ured picturesque  effects  of  the  outside.  This  is  an  exact  contradiction  of  the  true 
spirit  of  the  Queen  Anne  movement.  Irregular  arrangements,  giving  a  picturesque 
effect,  are  always  artistic  when  they  spring  from  necessities  of  consti'uction,  or  from 
later  additions  to  an  earlier  plan.  If  the  irregular  arrangements  are  manufactured 
purposely,  they  are  almost  certain  to  do  violence  to  convenience,  and  to  betray  a 
want  of  structui'al  feeling  in  tne  design. 

Summary  of  the  Matter  Relating  to  Historic  Styles  in  Modern 
Architecture. — It  appears  from  the  foregoing  brief  sketch,  that  some 
acquaintance  with  the  old  historic  buildings  is  essential  to  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  merits  and  demerits  of  the  modern  copies;  that  many 
modern  buildings  maybe  su[)posed  to  derive  their  value  from  imita- 
tion of  an  old  model,  Avhen  their  merit  really  lies  in  independence 
of  it — that  the  latest  and  best  tendency  of  modern  taste  is  toward 
complete  modern  independence;  but  that  this  tendency  is  often  dis- 
guised under  names  like  "Queen  Anne,"  "Italian  Gothic,"  etc. 

AVliat  has  been  said  of  the  con.structional  r>tand-point  in  criticism, 
implies  that  a  person,  passing  an  opinion  on  the  artistic  merits  of  a 
building,  should  have  some  knowledge  of  its  uses  and  purpose,  and 
some  perception  as  to  the  necessary  interinr  arrangements  connected 
therewith.     This   knowledge   or  perception   must  be  largely  connned 


26  CRITICISM     IN"     ARCHITECTURE. 

to  persons  of  mature  years.  But  this  does  not  invalidate  the  posi- 
tion that  art  education  in  such  matters  is  desirable  for  young  people. 
They  are  not  expected  to  exercise  an  independent  taste  at  the 
beginning  of  their  studies,  Ijut  to  learn  such  matter  of  fact  about  the 
history  of  styles  as  will  guard  them  from  a  mistaken  stand-point 
when  they  reach  years  of  discretion. 

Principles  or  Stand-points  of  Criticism  in  Architecture. — These  are  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  the  question  whether  fidelity  to  a  historic  style  has  been  observed,  and 
in  each  particular  case  the  use  and  nature  of  the  building  must  be  considered. 
It  is  not,  therefore,  easy  or  desirable  to  define  abstract  principles  apart  from  good 
examples,  which  are  abundantly  found,  both  in  modern  and  in  old  historic  struct- 
tn"es.  Some  hints  as  to  criticism  may,  however,  be  indicated.  For  instance,  in 
applying  the  stand-point  of  interior  construction  to  the  exterior  ornament  and 
appearance,  it  is  not  necessary  to  confine  one's  self  to  the  jDhysical  facts,  but  these 
may  be  ideally  indicated  also.  In  a  stone  building  the  lines  of  the  divisions  of  the 
stories  do  not  appear  on  the  outside,  but  these  may  be  indicated  be  a  "string- 
course"* of  another  color  or  by  a  projected  molding,  and  this  would  still  be  a 
case  of  constructional  decoration — an  ideal  indication  of  the  construction.  To  take 
another  example  from  old  palaces  in  Florence ;  for  instance,  the  Riccardi,  Pitti 
(front  view),  and  Strozzi  palaces — these  do  not  derive  any  greater  security  of  con- 
struction from  the  fact  that  the  blocks  of  stone  are  largest  and  roughest  in  the 
lower  story.  But  the  appearance  of  strength  thus  given  is  an  ideal  expression  of 
the  actual  facts ;  viz.,  that  the  lowest  story  carries  the  greatest  weight,  and  must 
be  of  corresponding  strength.  (A  similar  grading  and  distinction  may  be  observed 
in  comparing  the  second  story  with  the  third  in  the  palaces  named.)  In  other 
cases,  the  actual  construction  maj^  give  of  itself  an  ornamental  aspect ;  for  instance, 
in  brick  buildings  where  a  wooden  frame-work  is  used,  this  frame-work  may  be 
made  apparent.  So  in  wooden  buildings  the  frame-work  of  the  beams  may  be  a 
decorative  element. 

Much  artistic  effect  may  be  oljtained  from  rough  or  unpolished  surfaces — which 
are  generally,  or  very  often,  preferable  to  smoother  ones  of  the  given  texture.  The 
verj'  general  absence  of  large  and  undecorated  surfaces  in  modern  architecture,  has 
tended  to  make  us  somewhat  unrestful  in  taste,  and  to  find  in  buildings  which 
exhibit  them  an  appearance  of  gloom  and  heaviness.  G-ood  taste  is,  however,  not 
at  all  averse  to  large  effects  of  undecorated  or  rough  surface  in  biulding.  (A  fine 
example  is  the  Tiffany  mansion  in  New  York.)  In  the  old  Roman  ruins,  and  in 
all  periods  of  historic  buildings,  these  effects  may  be  abundantly  studied.  It  does 
not,  however,  follow  that  the  same  taste  would  not  take  pleasure  in  a  profusion 
of  surface  ornament,  such  as  is  found  in  Moresque  decoration.  The  same  lady  may 
wear  on  one  occasion  a  plain  tailor-cut  dress ;  on  another,  a  ball-dress  covered 
with  lace,  and  the  same  taste  may  find  pleasure  in  both.  As  regards  plainness  of 
construction  in  modern  architecture,  it  may,  however,  be  noted  that  good  criticism 
ranks  among  the  best   productions  of  modern   art,  its  great  engineering  construe- 

*  A  'string-course,"  or  "course,"  is  a  horizontal  line  of  masonry,  distinguished  by  material 
or  color  from  the  general  wall  I'J-i-aje.    It  may,  or  may  not,  have  projection. 


NOTES     OX     TllK      ILLUSTRATIONS.  27 

tions,  railway  bridges,  suspension  bridges,  and  other  works,  where  the  simple 
engineering  construction  is  the  only  element  of  effect. 

The  "Decorative  Art"  Movement  corresponds  in  time  and  in  its  inspiration  to 
the  rise  of  the  modern  Romanesque,  Italian  Gothic,  and  Queen  Anne  "styles." 
In  the  so-called  "Eastlake"  and  "Queen  Anne"  furniture,  there  is  the  same  tend- 
ency to  emphasize  the  lines  of  natural  constrxiction  and  develop  the  ornament  in 
connection  with  them.  But  hero,  as  in  the  architectural  "styles"  in  question,  the 
intluence  of  fashion  has  often  led  to  external  imitations  which  lack  the  merits  and 
idea  of  the  original  designs. 

The  Modern  Moresque  Style. — The  Arab  styles  of  ornament  and  building  were 
introduced  into  Spain  by  the  Arab  Mohammedan  Conquest  in  the  8th  centuiy,  a.d. 
The  Moors  of  North  Africa  had  become  amalgamated  with  the  Arabs ;  had  adopted 
their  religion  and  culture  at  this  time,  and  participated  in  this  invasion.  Hence 
the  word  Moresque  is  often  applied  to  the  Arab  style  in  Spain. 

Of  all  modern  imitations  of  historic  styles,  the  imitations  of  the  Arab  or 
Moresque  have  been  hitherto  the  least  important  in  number  and  influence.  The 
copies  confine  themselves  to  a  revival  in  ornamental  use  of  the  horseshoe  arch, 
and  of  the  peculiar  columns  and  capitals  of  Arab  style  (especially  those  used  in 
the  Alhambra  Palace  of  Granada,  in  Spain,  dating  from  the  14th  century),  and  to 
imitations  of  the  "Arabesque"  surface  decoration,  of  which  abundant  illustration 
may  be  found  in  all  works  or  photographs  relating  to  modern  Egypt,  a  prominent 
seat  of  Arab  civilization  from  the  7th  century  on  (see  especially  views  from  Cairo"). 
The  climate  and  civilization  in  which  the  Arab  style  developed  render  modern 
imitations  of  Arab  construction  almost  impossible.  The  modern  copies  are  scarcely 
worthy  of  serious  consideration,  if  considered  as  copies.  In  all  cases  the  modern 
character  is  predominant,  and  some  slight  ornamental  influence  is  all  that  really 
allows  the  use  of  the  word  "Moresque"  or  "Arab"  in  relation  to  them. 

Criticism  of  the  Modern  Moresque. — Such  buildings  are  to  be  judged  on  inde- 
pendent grounds,  and  without  any  reference  to  fidelity  of  imitation.  The  slender 
proportions  in  the  Arab  and  Moresque  columns  make  them  especially  available 
for  free  reproduction  in  inm.  Tn  iniMlcrn  terra-cotta  or  brick  decoration,  Arab  or 
Moresque  motives  have  been  very  successfully  employed.  The  "Casino,"  in  New 
York,  is  a  fine  example  of  th^s  use.  The  interi<tr  of  the  Synagogue  in  New  York 
is  an  example  of  modern  Moresque  especially  distinguished  by  the  color  effects. 

NOTES    ON    THE    ILLUSTRATIONS    FOR    MODERN    ARCHITECTURE.* 

(1-12,  inclusive.) 

Nos,  1  and  2  are  illustrations  for  the  buttressed,  or  Northern  Gothic,  style,  as 
revived  in  the  19th  century  from  buildings  of  the  12th,  13th,  14th,  and  loth 
centuries.     Compare  56-63,  inclusive. 

Nos.  3  and  4  are  illustrations  of  the  revival  of  the  Greek  Temple  style,  whose 
best  ancient  examples  are  of  the  5th  century  n.c.  Compare  22,  The  active  period 
of  modern  revival  was  in  the  late  ISth  and  early  19th  centuries,  and  preceded  the 
modern  Gothic. 

Nos.  5  and  6  are  illustrations  of  the  19th  century  Renaissance.  This  is  the 
continuation   of   the   Italian   revival   of  the  decorative  style   of  the   Roman  ruins 

♦  Reheai'siug  and  summarizing  points  of  the  foregoing  text. 


28 


JSrOTES    ON    THE    ILLUSTE ATIOXS. 


which  began  iu  Italy  in  the  15th  century,  spi-ead  over  Northern  Europe  in  the 
16th  century,  and  has  since  continued  there,  as  well  as  in  ail  colonies  of  European 
States  since  and  during  the  same  time.     Compare  66-69,  inclusive. 

Each  of  the  thi'ee  styles  in  question  has  been  illustrated  by  two  buildings,  of 
which  one  is  in  Europe  and  one  in  America,  in  order  to  show  the  correspondence 
between  the  two  continents  in  matters  of  architectural  style. 

Nos.  7,  8,  represent  the  modern  revival  of  decorative  traits  borrowed  from 
Medieval  Romanesque.  Compare  50-55,  inclusive.  The  buildings  of  the  Medieval 
period  belong  to  the  11th,  12th,  and  13th  centuries.  The  modern  revival  succeeded 
that  of  the  buttressed  Gothic  about  and  after  the  middle  of  the  19th  century. 
Nos.  8,  10,  represent  the  modern  revival  of  decorative  traits  of  "Italian  Gothic." 
Compare  p.  116.  Old  buildings  of  the  Italian  Gothic  belong  to  the  13th,  I4th, 
and  early  15th  centuries.  The  modern  revival  is  somewhat  later  than  the  Roman- 
esque (and  later  than  the  buttressed  Gothic),  and  has  been  especially  active  about 
and  since  1870.  Nos.  11,  12,  illustrate  the  later  activity  of  the  so-called  "Queen 
Anne."  No.  12  represents  the  present  tendencies  of  countiy-house  architecture, 
and  a  class  of  buildings  to  which  the  term  "Queen  Anne"  is  frequently  applied 
without  ground.  In  No.  11  the  curved  and  pointed  door  and  window  gable  orna- 
ments do  actually  repeat  the  particular  forms  common  in  the  Renaissance  of  the 
early  18th  century,  time  of  Queen  Anne  ;  but  the  significance  of  the  movement  in 
taste  to  which  this  building  belongs  is  really  shown  in  the  extent  of  plain  brick 
surface. 


Court  of  a  Modern  Oriental  House.     Arab  Style. 


ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

Relations  to  Greek  Art. — The  matter  of  foregoing  sections  will 
sutHciently  explain  the  use,  in  onr  own  time,  of  some  historical 
knowledge  of  architecture.  Although  there  are  no  modern  copies 
of  the  ancient  Oriental  buildings  (the  "Tombs,"  in  New  York,  and 
the  Reservoir,  at  Forty-second  street,  in  New  York,  are  rare  excep- 
tions— ^both  in  Egyptian  style),  these  buildings  had  important  influ- 
ence on  the  Greeks,  and  hence  some  knc^wledge  about  them  is  a 
necessary  introduction  to  the  subject  of  Greek  andiitocture. 

Nations  in  Question. — By  the  ancient  Oriental  nations,  we  mean 
those  belonging  to  ancient  history,  as  generally  studied — excluding 
the  Chinese  and   Plindoos. 

The  Countries  in  Question  arc  those  of  the  Nile  Valley,  in 
Africa  (KgM)t),  and  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  Valley,  in  Western  Asia 
{Assyria  and  Chaldea). 

Temple  Ruins  of  Egypt. — Among  the  ancient  Oriental  nations, 
as  in  the  East  at  the  present  day,  the  exteriors  of  the  private 
dwellings  had  very  little  architectural  pretension  or  ornament. 
This  same  fact  holds,  also,  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Thus  the  temples,  tombs,  and  public  buildings  are  mainly  in  ques- 
tion in  a  brief  account  of  ancient  architecture.  The  angient  private 
dwellings  were  built  about  an  interior  court.  On  the  court  itself, 
and  the  apartments  opening  on  it,  the  luxury  and  taste  were  lav- 
ished, but  the  exterior  Avails  were  bare  and  unde( -orated,  often  even 
without  windows  opening  on  the  street. 

The  Most  Important  Egyptian  Temple  now  standing,  as  regards 
purposes  ot  general  study,  is  that  of  Edfoi;  (Illustration  18).  The 
temple  of  Edfou  owes  its  distinction,  not  to  the  fact  that  it  was  in 
ancient  times  larger  or  more  splendid  than  many  others,  but  to  the 
fact  that  it  is  n(nv  the  best  preserved,  and  consequently  the  one 
through  whieh  other  niins  may  be  restored  in  imagination. 

Temple  Arrangement. — The  priests  of  Eg\'pt  were  exclusive  guard- 
ians of  its  learning,  science,  and  religion.    They  belonged  to  an  hered- 


80  EGYPTIAN     ARCHITECTURE. 

itary  caste,  forming  a  species  of  nobility.  Even  the  despotic  kings 
were  subject  to  their  laws.  Thus  the  temples  may  be  considered  as 
a  species  of  priestly  palace,  as  well  as  places  of  worship.  They 
were,  moreover,  by  the  wealth  which  they  contained,  peculiarly 
exposed  to  attacks  of  foreign  or  domestic  foes,  and  so  they  also,  on 
occasion,  were  actually  used  as  fortresses.  Thus  Ave  understand  the 
genera]  arrangement  of  the  Egyptian  temple — an  exterior  high 
surrounding  wall,  for  purposes  of  defense ;  a  gateway  (pylon)  of 
massive  proportions,  towering  above  the  courts  and  corridors,,  to 
protect  the  entrance  to  them ;  a  series  of  courts,  surrounded  by 
porticoes,  for  the  comfort  and  seclusion  of  the  priests,  as  well  as  to 
receive  the  processions  and  gatherings  of  the  worshipers ;  roofed 
apartments  alternating  with  the  courts,  variously  intended  for  the 
images  of  the  gods,  for  the  residence  or  uses  of  the  priests,  for  the 
preservation  of  their  treasures  and  the  offerings  made  to  them  or 
the  di\dnity,  etc. 

Since  the  despotic  power  of  the  king,  in  alliance  with  the 
priestly  caste,  was  considered  essential  to  the  safety  and  glory  of 
the  nation,  he  received  divine  honors  during  life,  and  was  deified 
after  death.  The  temples  were  erected  by  the  kings,  and  were  cov- 
ered Avith  carvings  and  inscriptions  commemorating  their  glory  and 
victories.  They  may  be  considered  also,  therefore,  as  royal  monu- 
ments, significant  of  the  king's  devotion  to  the  national  religion, 
and  of  his  deification  by  it. 

Structural  Traits  of  an  Egyptian  Temple.* — The  Egyptians  were 
a  nation  of  peculiarly  conservative  tendencies.  Solidity  and  dura- 
bility were  the  ideals  which  all  their  art  indicates  and  exhibits.  The 
temple  apartments  Avere  roofed  with  horizontal  blocks  of  stone  (see 
14,  16,  17,  18),  and  these  were  supported  by  stone  beams  resting 
on  perpendicular  stone  columns.  Where  these  columns  face  on  a 
court,  there  results  from  this  construction  a  double  line  of  beams 
OA''er  the  columns  (16).  The  first  line  of  bearns  supports  the  ends  of 
the  roofing  blocks,  and  these  ends  aye  fronted  and  covered  up  by  a 
second  line  of  stone  beams.  This  double  line  of  beams  Avas  con- 
tinued in  the   Greek  architecture  (see  22  and  24),  and  so,  through 

*  Although,  the  illustrations  opposite  are  taken  from  two  different  temples",  they  are  intended 
to  represent  the  front  view,  side  section,  and  ground  plan  of  any  one  'Egyptian  temple — with 
proviso  that  the  courts  and  apartments  may  be  of  indefinite  number  and  sequence.  The  gradual 
diminution  in  the  height  of  the  apartments,  from  the  front  toward  the  rear,  was  probably  intended 
to  impress  the  entering  spectator  by  artificial  exaggeration  of  the  natural  perspective  diminution. 


13-     Temple  of  Edfou. 


V.X,. 


14.     Temple  of  Khons,   Karnak.     Longitudinal  section. 


15.     Temple  of  Khons,    Karnak.     Ground  plan. 


c       c 
c  t      c 

«       f  c 


'/:  \l^''^'J  'i6. 'T6-.MPLE   COURT   AND    APARTMENTS,  DENDERAH. 


FORMS    OF    CONSTRUCTION.  33 

the  Romun  ornamental  copies  of  Greek  forms,  passed  down  to  the 
Renaissance  and  to  our  own  hkhUtu  buildings.  (See  imitations  of  the 
double  beam  line  in  Illustrations  5  and  (i.) 

The  Cornice  Construction  of  the  Egyptian  ruin  (10)  just  noted 
is,  however,  peculiar  to  Egypt,  and  was  not  transmitted  to  the 
Greeks.  This  cornice,  also  seen  at  the  summit  of  the  pylons  (Edfou 
restoration),  has  a  forward  curving  profile,  below  which  luiis  a 
rounded  horizontal  niDlding.'^'  This  form  of  the  cornice  was  intended 
to  accent  the  massive  heaviness  of  effect  in  the  building  by  the 
dark  shadow  resulting.  The  molding  below  accents  the  shadow  by 
a  line  of  light  cauglit  on  the  projection. 

The  Colonnade. — In  observing  the  Egyptian  colunnis,  we  note 
first,  that  this  colonnade  architecture,  with  its  upright  supports  and 
horizontal  stone  beams,  was  the  prototype  of  the  Greek  colonnade 
style;  second,  that  the  elements  of  base,  shaft,  capital,  and  abacus 
(the  supporting  plate  of  stone  between  the  capital  and  the  beam), 
which  are  observable  in  Greek  architecture,  are  found  in  the  Egyp- 
tian period  (14).  These  various  elements  are  illustrations  of  the 
principle  of  uniting  ornament  with  structural  use.  The  base  is  a 
transition  member  uniting  the  shaft  with  the  supporting  surface. 
The  capital  is  a  transition  member  uniting  the  shaft  with  the  sup- 
ported beam.  It  avoids  an  abrupt  connection  of  the  round  support 
with  the  rertangular  nhacus  plate. 

Various  Forms  of  the  Egyptian  Column  and  Capital  are  seen  iii 
the  illustrations  and  text-cuts.  Of  a  very  ancient  period,  earlier 
than  2500  b.c,  are  the  columns  of  the  rock-cut  tombs  at  Beni 
Hassan,  famous  for  their  resemblance  to  the  Greek  Doric,  whose 
earliest  standing  example  is  more  than  fourteen  hundred  3'ears  later. 
Another  form  of  column  and  capital  found  at  Beni  Hassan,  and  at 
Thebes,  of  the  same  early  time,  imitates  a  buncli  of  lotus  buds  and 
stems,  bound  together.  The  form  at  18  is  a  later  derivative.  Eonus 
of  the  capital  are  noticeable  in  these  ruins,  resembling  an  inverted 
bell  and  representing  an  open  lotus  flower,  the  closed  lotus  l)ud, 
etc.,  pp.  ?.>^-4  2. 

The   Period   of   the   existing   Egyptian   ruins  is  generally   much 

*  A  molding  is  a  line  of  projected  or  recessed  masonry  cutting— generally,  i.  f.,  in  Greek  and 
subsequent  use,  the  moldins  is  composed  of  alternately  projected  and  recessed  parts  The 
"  profile "  is  the  contour  of  outline  or  moldings  as  they  would  appear  if  sawn  across  at  right 
angles  to  their  lentrtK 


34  EGYPTIAN     RUINS     AND     PYRAMIDS. 

later  than  that  of  the  isolated  columns  of  Beni  Hassan  just  men- 
tioned. Between  1800  b.c.  and  1200  B.C.,  a  period  of  great  building 
activity,  were  erected  most  of  the  temples,  now  in  ruins,  at  Thebes. 
These  are  variously  known,  from  the  sites  of  modern  Arab  villages 
erected  at  various  points  of  the  ancient  city,  as  the  ruins  of  Karnak^ 
of  Luxor,  of  Medinet  Habou,  and  of  Gourneh. 


Important  Ruins. — The  most  famous  Egyptian  temple  ruin  is  the  "Great  Hall"" 
of  Karnak,  built  in  the  14th  century  B.C.  by  the  kings  Seti  I.  and  Ramses  II. 
(father  and  son — the  mummy  of  Ramses  II.  has  been  discovered  and  unrolled,  and 
is  in  the  Museum  of  Gizeh  near  Cairo). 

The  temple  at  Abydus  is  a-  construction  of  Seti  I.  The  "Ramesseum"  at 
Thebes  (17)  dates  from  Ramses  II.  There  is  a  famous  rock-cut  temple  in  Nubia, 
at  Ipsamboul  (80)  dating  from  this  last  king.  On  this  upper  portion  of  the  Nile, 
above  the  limits  of  Egypt  proper,  there  are  many  other  Egj^ptian  ruins. 

After  the  time  of  the  ruin  at  Medinet  Habou,  Thebes,  about  1270  b.c,  many- 
centuries  passed  of  which  no  remains  are  now  known.  The  temple  of  Edfou  dates 
from  the  Greek  rule  over  Egypt,  b.c.  332-b.c.  30.  Of  the  same  time  are  the  tem- 
ple of  Deuderah  (16)  and  the  temples  at  Philee.  The  temples  at  Esneh  and  Kom 
Ambos  belong  to  the  period  of  Roman  rule.  This  rule  lasted  after  30  b.c.  till 
the  Arab  conquest  in  the  7th  century  a.d.  (But  pagan  temples  were  not  built 
after  the  triumph  of  Christianity  in  the  4th  century,  a.d.)  Capitals  with  sculpt- 
ured leaf  decoration,  like  those  at  Philas  (19),  indicate  the  Greek  or  Roman  period. 
The  same  holds  of  the  capitals  with  heads  of  Hathor  (Egyptian  Venus)  (16). 

Returning  to  the  Edfou  temple  as  the  general  type  of  all  others,  it  is  to  be- 
observed  that  the  entire  wall,  roof,  beam,  and  column  surface  of  the  temple  was. 
covered  with  carved  inscriptions  and  decorative  or  pictorial  designs ;  all  in  brilliant 
color.  Stucco  of  a  very  durable  quality  was  laid  on  the  stone  surface  and  received 
the  coloring.  If  the  pylons  now  destroyed  are  restored  in  imagination,  the  ruins, 
16,  17,  and  18,  may  be  connected  with  the  typical  temple  of  Edfou  for  an  idea  of 
their  original  general  effect. 

The  Pyramids. — Of  a  still  older  period  than  any  of  the  temple  ruins  now  stand- 
ing, and  not  later  than  3800  B.C.,  are  the  royal  pyramid  tombs  near  Cairo.  The 
largest  pyramid,  that  of  Shufu  (Cheops  [keeops]  as  Grecianized  in  pronunciation), 
covers  nearly  thirteen  acres  of  ground,  and  was  once  over  four  hundred  and  eighty 
feet  high.  The  adjacent  pyramid  of  King  Shafra  (Chephi'en)  (both  are  illustrated 
at  20)  was  four  hundred  and  seventy  feet.  Beside  it  is  the  colossal  Sphinx,  with 
human  head  and  lion's  body,  possibly  of  still  more  ancient  date,  now  buried  to  the 
shoulders  in  sand,  sixtj-five  feet  high,  and  one  hundred  and  forty-two  feet  long. 
This  Sphinx  is  an  emblem  of  the  Egyptian  Divinity  Horus,  one  of  the  forms  of  the 
Sun-god. 

The  religion  of  the  Egyptians  taught  or  admitted  the  existence  of  a  Supreme 
Being  (disguised  under  various  forms  and  attributes,  and  giving  rise  to  a  variety  of 
subordinate  personifications,  which  were  also  worshiped  as  correlated  divinities).  It 
taught  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  a  state  of  rewards  and  punishments  after 
death.  The  immense  size  of  the  royal  p^Tamid  tombs  was  connected  with  a  general 
habit  of  emphasizing  the  importance  of  the  tomb,  which,  in  the  case  of  the  king. 


17.     The  Ramesseum,  Thebes. 
i3.     Ruins  of  Hermopolis. 


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CU  A  1,1)  i:  A  N     AND     ASSYUIAN     A  l{  (' II  IT  E  CTU  R  E.  3.7 

found  an  extraordinary  development.  The  Egyptian  idea  of  the  future  life  con- 
ceived of  the  continued  existence  of  the  soul  and  of  the  "vital  spark,"  and  also  of 
a  spectral  shadow  or  essence  of  tlic  body,  maintaining-its  guise.  This  specter,  at 
least  in  the  earliest  jieriod  known,  was  conceived  to  depend  for  its  well-being  and 
activity,  on  a  corporeal  form  to  which  it  might  attach  itself.  Hence,  one  reason 
for  the  embalmment  of  the  mummy,  and  in  many  cases  for  the  placing  of  statues 
in  the  tomb  to  which  the  spirit  might  attach  itself.  Such  statues  (Nos.  77  and  79) 
are  found  in  many  tombs  near  the  pyramids,  though  not  in  the  pyramids  them- 
selves. Great  care  was  taken  to  avoiil  the  possibility  of  destruction,  and  to  con- 
ceal them  in  deep  wells  which  formed  part  of  the  tomb.  The  galleries  leading  to 
the  tomb  chambers,  within  the  pyramids,  which  contained  the  stone  cottins  and 
mummies,  were  closed  at  the  entrance  by  immense  blocks  of  stone. 

Chaldean  and  Assyrian  Architecture. — The  various  ancient  Empires  of  the 
Tigris-Euphrates  Valley,  Chaldean,  .\ss\nan,  Babylonian,  and  Persian,  were  suc- 
cessive governmental  forms  controlling  one  single  civilization,  which  changed  in 
the  coui'se  of  successive  centuries  in  many  ways,  but  which  still  retained  its  unity 
in  spite  of  the  change  of  rulers  implied  by  the  above  succession  of  empires. 

On  account  of  the  material  used  in  the  Chaldean  and  Assyrian  constructions, 
which  was  brick,  whereas  the  Egyptians  used  stone  for  their  most  important 
buildings,  the  ruins  are  now  so  shapeless  that  only  ground  plans  and  restorations 
can  be  used  for  illustration.  The  older  (Chaldean)  period  is  distinguished  by  im- 
mense heaps  of  bricks,  which  are  the  ruins  of  its  temples.  These  were  built  in 
fashion  of  high  platforms  ascended  by  winding  staircases  on  the  outside.  At  the 
summit  was  the  altar  for  sacrifice  and  the  space  on  which  the  priests  made  their 
astronomical  and  astrological  observations.  Many  of  the  Chaldean  ruins  date 
before  2000  b.c. 

In  the  later  (AssjTian)  period,  tlie  ruins  of  palaces  predominate  over  those  of 
temples.  These  are  also  reduced  to  shapeless  heaps  and  mounds.  Laborious 
excavations  are  required  to  reproduce  the  plan  and  construction  of  the  original 
monuments. 

The  Babylonian  Empire  di\-idcd  the  spoils  and  territories  of  the  Assj-rian  state 
with  the  Medes  after  6:i5  ».c.  The  Persian  Empire  reunited  these  teiTitories  about 
550  B.C.,  and  added  Egypt  to  them  about  twenty-hve  years  later.  The  Persian 
conquests  extended  to  the  Indus  on  the  east  and  to  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor. 
The  great  capitals  of  this  state,  Persepolis  and  Tarsagada?,  lay  east  of  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  Valley,  in  the  province  of  Persia  proper,  and  here  palaces  were  erected 
by  the  Persian  monarchs,  whose  ruins  show  that  tlie  Eastern  world  was  already 
beginning  to  feel  the  influence  of  Greek  art.  This  Greek  influence  became  ascend- 
ant after  Alexander  the  Great's  conquest  of  the  Persian  Empire,  about  330  B.C., 
and  continued  ascendant  over  Western  Asia  till  the  rise  of  the  ^Mohammedan  Arabs 
in  the  7th  century  A.n. 

Egypt  alone  maintained  her  indcjiendent  art  forms  in  this  Greek  period  after 
Alexander's  conquest  (which  included  Egypt).  .  In  speaking  of  the  a.scendancy  of 
Greek  civilizaiion  as  continuing  till  the  time  of  the  Arab  conquests,  it  is  to  be 
remembered  that  the  rule  of  the  Roman  p]mpire  over  the  Oriental  Mediterranean 
countries,  which  began  shortly  before  the  Christian  Era,  did  not  change  their 
civihV.ation.     The  Grci-k  Oriental  culture  rath-r  became  that  of  the  Romans. 

The  Practical  Influence  of  Chaldean  and  Assyrian  Architecture  on  the  Greek 
was  mainly  in  ornamental  forms  and  designs.     The  use  of  the  arch  was  practiced 


38 


CHALDEAN     AND     ASSYRIAN     ARCHITECTURE. 


in  Chaldea  and  Assyria.  In  Egypt,  it  was  also  used,  though  not  in  temples.  It 
appears  very  probable  that  the  vaulting  (roofing)  arch  and  the  dome  were  also 
employed  in  the  former  countries.  It  has  long  been  known  that  the  arch  did  not 
originate  with  the  Roinans  of  Italy,  who  obtained  it  from  the  Etruscans.  The 
theory  which  derives  the  Etruscans  of  Italy,  or  a  portion  of  them,  from  Asia 
Minor,  where  Assyrian  influence  was  much  felt,  is  held  by  good  authorities.  Or 
the  arch  may  have  passed  to  Italy  by  Phoenician  transmission,  since  the  Phoeni- 
cians of  the  Syrian  coast  were  in  active  intercourse  with  both  Egj-pt  and  Assyria. 
Enameled  tiles  were  used  in  elaborate  compositions  of  beautiful  color  effects, 
especially  for  the  exteriors  of  the  buildings.  The  most  remarkable  known  exam- 
ples of  this  architectural  tile-work  (placed  in  the  Louvrs  Museum,  1886)  are- from 
Susa.  (Persian  period;  life-size  procession  of  the  royal  guard,  known  as  the  "Im- 
mortals," and  other  subjects.)  The  tile  decoration  of  the  Arabs  and  Saracens  is 
undoubtedly  a  continuation  of  this  art,  and  the  art  of  our  own  enameled  tiles 
descends  in  various  channels  from  the  same  original  source. 


NOTES    ON    THE    ILLUSTRATIONS    FOR    EGYPTIAN"    ARCHITECTURE.* 

(13-21,  inclusive.) 

Nos.  13,  14,  and  15  offer  in  combination  typical  examples  of  the  front  exterior 
view,  side  section,  and  ground  plan  of  an  Egyptian  temple.  Different  buildings 
vary  as  to   the  number   of  courts  and   apartments,  but  correspond   as  to  general 


Temple  of  Khons,   Karnak. 


plan  and  arrangement.  All  the  ruins  represented  at  16,  17,  18,  19,  may  be  re^ 
stored  in  imagination  by  the  assistance  of  the  first  three  typical  views,  and  con- 
nected vsdth  some  portion  of  the  general  plan  of  a  temple  as  there  shown. 
Obelisks  or  statues  were  frequently  placed  in  pairs  flanking  the  entrances  of  the 
pylons. 


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CHALDEAN    AND    ASSYRIAN    A  H  C  H  I  T  ECT  U  RE. 


41 


-  «=^-^-_ 


Rock  Tombs  of  Beni  Hassan, 


The  interior  Court  of  the  Temple  of  Khons  (text-cut,  p.  38)  should  be  compared 
with  the  plan,  15,  and  section,  14.*     The  -.-i-^ 

relation  of  the  view  from  Denderah,  16, 
to  the  original  entire  building  will  thus 
also  become  apparent.  It  is  designed  to 
show  in  larger  dimensions  the  Egyptian 
system  of  construction  as  regards  the  col- 
umn, capital,  roofing  blocks,  lines  of  beams 
in  exterior  view,  and  cornice.  • 

Nos.  17  and  18  will  now  be  understood 
as  fragments  of  constructions  similar  to 
the  text-cut,  p.  38,  or  to  Fig.  16,  and  as 
having    a    similar    relation    to    an    entire 

temple  as  indicated  by  the  typical  views  13,  14,  15.  Finally, 
Fig.  19  illustrates  the  general  appearance  of  Egyptian  ruins  in 
their  relation  to  the  surrounding  landscape. 

No.  20  shows  part  of  the  "Pyramid  field"  of  Gizeh,  near 
Cairo,  with  the  two  largest  pyramids  of  the  IVth  Dynasty,  which 
antedate  by  many  centuries  any  temple  ruins  known  at  present. 
'I'liey  are  probably  not  later  than  4000  b.c.  To  the  same  period 
of  the  "Ancient  Empire"  (as  contrasted  with  the  "New  Empire" 
beginning  about  1800  B.C.)  belong  the  rock-tombs  of  Beni  Hai^san, 
Xllth  Dynasty  (text-cut,  p.  41).  The  architectural  details,  columns, 
and  capital,  here  illustrated,  have  been  noted 
in  text. 

The  walls  between  the  columns,  as  found 
at  Denderah  (16),  are  not  typical  for  early 
Egyptian  monuments,  and  are  only  found  in 
the  period  of  decadence,  during  the  rule  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  'i'hc  true  Egj'ptian  feeling 
admits  either  an  open  colonnade  or  a  solid  en- 
tire wall,  but  no  compromise  between  the  two.  Imitation  gate- 
ways, with  side  pilasters  inserted  against  columns,  as  seen  at  1() 
and  18,  are  also  confined  to  the  period  of  decadence.  The 
original  Egyptian  construction  does  not  tolerate  any  break  in 
the  outline  of  the  column. 

The  shattered  pilaster  figures  in  17  are  representations  of 
the  God  Osiris  (the  Sun  during  the  night  conceived  as  God  oC 
the  dead  and  of  the  Lower  World,  and  thus  luning  the  fonn  of 
a  mummy).  Similar  "Osirid"  pillars  are  frequently  found  in 
Eg>-ptian  construction.  The  capitals  in  16  .show  heads  of  the 
Goddess  Hathor,  a  double  or  count<'rpart  of  Isis,  the  spouse  of 
Osiris  and  personification  of  the  fertile  earth.  The  winged 
disk  seen  over  the  portal  at  Denderah.  anrl  generally  found  in 
corresponding  positions  elsewhere  (see  Court  of  the  Temple  of 
Khons),  is  one  of  the  forms  of  the  God  Horns  (the  Rising  Sun,  child  of  Osiris 
and  Isis).     The  sun  has  the  wings  of  a  hawk  to  indicate  the  swiftness  of  its  course. 


Proto-Doric  Col- 
umn, Beni  Hassan 


Lotus-bud  Capital 
Beni  Hassan. 


*  Khons  is  a  Theban  form  of  the  G<xi  Ilorus  (the  Rising  Sun). 


42 


CHALDEAN    AND    ASSYEIAN    AE  C  KITE  CTUEE. 


Fig.  21  IS  an  imaginary  restored  view,  by  the  English  architect  and  critic  Fer- 
gusson,  of  the  Assyrian  palace  at  Khorsabad,  near  Nineveh.  The  arrangement 
of  the  lower  hne  of  rehef  slabs  is  based  on  actual  remains.  The  open  colonnades 
above  are  borrowed  by  the  artist  from  later  ruins  found  at  Persepolis.  The  palaco 
was  built  in  the  8th  century  and  destroyed  in  the  7th  century  b.c. 


Ruins  of  the  Great  Hall  of  Karnak,  Thebes. 


ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  GREEKS. 

General  Type  of  the  Greek  Temples. — The  most  perfectly  pro 
served  of  these,  is  the  Temple  of  Tlieseiis  at  Athens,  built  about 
460  B.C.  It  has  been  used  as  an  art  innseum.  Of  the  outer  portion 
only  the  roof  is  new.  The  illustration  of  this  building  (22)  may 
be  used  with  the  following  matter.  For  reasons  explained  (p.  29), 
and  on  account  of  the  destruction  of  the  public  buildings  other  than 
temples,  the  study  of  Greek  architecture  is  almost  entirely  confined 
to  these. 

The  Ruins. — The  earliest  Greek  Temple  ruins  now  in  existence 
date  from  the  6th  century  B.C.,  or  can  not  be  positively  fixed  as 
belonging  to  an  earlier  time.  Among  these  are  several  in  Sicily 
(where  the  Greek  colonies  then  controlled  the  Island);  one,  at  least, 
of  the  ruins  at  Psestum,  in  Lower  Italy,  in  which  country  there  were 
many  Greek  colonies,  and  one  at  Corinth.  The  most  important 
Greek  Temple  ruins  arc  at  Athens,  and  belong  to  the  5th  century 
B.C.  Subsequently,  the  leading  temples  were  those  built  in  the 
Oriental  Greek  countries,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Alexandria  in  Eygpt, 
etc.,  but  these  have  mainh^  disappeared,  aside  from  foundations  and 
scattered  fragments,  like  the  earlier  temples  of  Delphi,  Olympia,  and 
Ephesus.  The  destruction  of  temples  of  an  earlier  date  than  the  6th 
century  B.C.  is  probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  were  generally 
built  wholly  or  partly  of  wood. 

Temple  Construction. — In  the  earliest  stone  structures  standing, 
there  is  already  found  the  fixed  and  completely  developed  type  of 
the  Greek  temple.  This  type  shows  in  its  coluuinar  elements  of 
structure  an  Egj-ptian  origin,  but  in  form  and  arrangement  a  com- 
plete independence  of  foreign  influence.  Its  most  striking  feature 
is  the  exterior  portico,  whose  colonnade,  surrounding  a  wall  withcnit 
windows,  supports,  above  its  double  line  of  beams,  a  gabled  roof. 
The  plan  of  the  Egyptian  temple  admitted  an  indefinite  extent  and 
series  of  apartments  and  courts.  The  room  specially  dedicated  to 
the  statue  or  statues  of  the  divinity,  was  often  only  one  of  many. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Greek  temple  is  essentially  only  a  shrine  for 


44  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  GREEKS. 

the  statue,  with  the  surrounding  wall  and  colonnade.  To  this  main 
apartment  was  generally  added  another,  which  was  used  as  a 
treasury  for  the  State  funds  or  for  the  more  valuable  offerings 
made  to  the  shrine. 

In  the  greatest  period  of  Greek  art,  the  5th  and  -ith  century  B.C., 
the  temple  statues  of  special  fame  were  made  of  plates  of  ivory  and 
gold  (supported  by  an  interior  skeleton  frame  of  wood),  and  were  of 
colossal  size.  An  interior  colonnS-de,  of  two  series  of  columns,  super- 
imposed, supported  the  roof  and  divided  the  apartment  of  the  statue 
into  a  middle  nave  and  two  side  aisles.  It  is  not  certain  whether 
or  no  the  aisles  were  covered  by  a  gallery,  overlooking  the  statue. 

Lighting  of  the  Temples, — As  opposed  to  the  Egyptian  temple, 
whose  roof  was  flat  and  entirely  of  stone,  the  Greeks  used  wooden 
beams  for  the  interior  roof,  which  was  covered  with  stone  or  terra- 
cotta slabs  outside.  On  account  of  the  decay  of  the  wooden  portions, 
none  of  these  roofs  have  been  preserved,  so  that  the  method  of 
lighting  the  buildings  is  not  certainly  known.  The  absence  of 
windows  on  the  sides  was  probably  intended  to  avoid  the  effect  of 
cross  lights,  and  to  throw  the  statue  into  relief  by  the  light  falling 
on  it  directly  from  above.  Some  temples  were  lighted  by  a  direct 
opening  in  the  roof,  but  it  is  not  likely  that  any  of  those  containing 
the  gold  and  ivory  statues  were  among  the  number,  (The  difficulty 
of  devising  a  construction  by  which  the  lighting  was  obtained  in 
other  cases  has  led  also  to  the  theory  that  artificial  light  was  used.) 

The  Colonnade. — There  was  no  exclusiveness  about  the  rites  of 
Greek  worship,  which  consisted  mainly  of  choral  hymns  and  rhythmic 
dances,  executed  by  the  citizens  themselves.  The  priests  were  not 
the  guardians  of  mysterious  learning  or  masters  of  a  written  hiero- 
gl^^phic  language,  which  could  not  be  read  by  the  uninitiated.  The 
priestly  office  was  hereditary  in  certain  families,  but  the  priests 
were  ordinary  citizens  who  engaged  in  public  affairs,  and  lived  like 
their  neighbors.  This  publicity  of  rites  in  the  religious  system 
finds  a  counterpart  in  the  portico,  by  which  the  temple  Avas  sur- 
rounded. The  citizens  were  invited  by  it  to  approach  the  building 
and  to  enjoy  its  protection,  although  the  shrine  itself  could  not,  on 
account  of  its  size,  admit  a  large  number  at  once.  Moreover,  to 
increase  the  size  of  the  shrine  within  would  have  tended  to  diminish 
the  effect  of  the  colossal  statue.  Thus,  in  the  natural  tendency  to 
increase   ihe  size  of  new  temples,  as  the  Greek  States  increased  in 


r';--- 


22.     Temple  of  Theseus,  Athens.     Present  condition.        23.     Acropolis  at  Athens,     Present  condition 

04.     Parthenon,  Athens.     Presen*  condition. 


25.     INTERIOR     OF     THE     PARTHENON.     Restored. 


I.UUIC     ANl'     l.'NK-'     ORDERS.  *' 


v»  „nfl  wealtl,  tlio  development  Avas,  so  to  speak,  on  the  outside. 
Hence  one  expianafon  of  the  exterior  colonnade.  The  colonnade 
™av  also  be  understood  as  the  screen  or  decoration  reUevmg  the 
Znk l^rface  of  tlu-  «....  of  the  hui,di„«.  whi.h,  .e  have  seen,  .as 
unbroken  l-v  windows. 

was  a  part  of  the  rehgion,  and  t »  ''"I^"^  ^  „.    t^  open  colon- 

w...re  open  to  the  =°"™''^'^ ^       frJ^oT a     Greek  p.blic  architecture,  both  in 
oades.  ^vhich  are  the  distmct.ve  feature  °'  »»  ^'^''^  '  ^^^  ,,i„^t^  a„d  of 

.„p.e.  and  o.her.^e,  «e.  a  P-  '-    XI*  n^rthe  .reat  despotisms  of 

vhe  civilization   of    the  people,      in  independent  civic 

art  had  thus,  at  once,  a  civic  and  L"»»7  ""^^"^^^^  „hi,h  were  associated  with 

With  regard  to  the  religion  itself,  and  '°    '« 'f^^  ^    „  „.^,,,  „„t  MoIs  which 

the  temple  statues,  some  words  are  ^^^^^^ -J^' ^^^   ,„,i„i,y.     The   more 

were   directly  worshiped    "«;.--;-'»;;  ^XZn  of  a  single  God.    Others, 
serious  Greeks  of  the  best  period  had  ristn  to  tl  ^^^  .^^^, 

in   earlier   times,   worshiped    their   nationa     P^  -"   <     '-^     ^^^,  ,^„  ,3,,,  p„rt  „, 
power,  without  questioning  the  e-tence  "f  '^^J^  „,  ,„,  „,thological 
the  4th  century  B.C.,   skepticism   ^  to   *»  -^-'^^_,^^.^^,  ,,  personihcations  of 
divinities  was  very  general ;    but  these  were 
various  virtues  and  ideal  (lualities. 

Distinction  between  the  Doric  and  Ionic  Orders.-TK^^."^^ 

,   ,1,.  r,:...\-  t.niole   have  l.een  sketched,  and  we   no«  proceea 

ZlZ  tdi^r  "styles  in  .hich  the  general  plan  .as  carr.ed 

out,  known  as  the  Greek  "OnW"^  ^^^^     ^^^ 

There  are  really  only  t.o  ^^f:^^^   ,  P,  ,,  ;,  really  Ionic, 
Corinthian  is  often  specified  a    -^"^^^2a.or.t.  ornamentation, 
.-ith  a  tnove  elaborate  capita    ^t"'^^°,,^,,,,^  and  these 
The  distinction  between  the  orders  lies  in  then  picp 
proportions  are  essentially  the  same  in  the  lonic  and  «-."*-. 
'    The  "Tuscan"  is  sometimes  distinguished  as  a  separate  oide    but 

. .  only  a  '^^^^^^i-^r'^r^rTt:^:^^"^^. 

:lere?:;ir dSi::  ~  .  a  Koman  and  degraded 
"Thf  rer^rtCft  Doric  and  Ionic  temples  (compare 


48  DORIC    ORDER. 

27  with  28)  represent  the  distinctions  between  the  two  Greek  tribes, 
from  which  tlie  names  are  borrowed.  The  Doric  temple  was  origi- 
nally that  of  the  Doric  Greeks,  and  in  its  massive  solidity  of  appear- 
ance and  construction  reflects  the  simplicity  and  sternness  of  their 
character  and  taste.  The  Ionic  temple  shows  in  its  light  and 
elegant  construction  the  more  refined  and  effeminate  nature  of  the 
lonians.  In  the  ruin  which  is  the  original  of  27,  the  gable  is  want- 
ing and  has  been  restored  by  the  artist. 

According  to  the  division  generally  mentioned  in  Greek  histories,  there  were 
three  tribes  of  Greeks,  the  third  named  being  the  ^^olian.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
however,  the  JEolic  Greeks  represent  a  survival  and  continuation,  in  some  localities, 
of  the  dialect  and  peculiarities  of  the  early  Greeks  which  were  universal  before  the 
separation  into  the  Doric  and  Ionic  divisions  had  become  apparent.  (A  somewhat 
similar  instance  might  be  found  in  the  present  well-known  differences  between 
North  and  South  Germans,  as  compared  with  the  Icelanders,  whose  isolated  position 
explains  the  fact  that  they  continued  to  represent  an  early  stage  of  Germanic  life, 
similar  to  that  from  which  both  North  and  South  Germans  sprang,  long  after  this 
division  had  taken  place.) 

The  Doric  Character  and  the  Doric  Order. — Recorded  or  written  Greek  history, 
as  distinct  from  knowledge  drawn  from  the  study  of  language  and  from  archae- 
ologic  remains,  begins  about  1100  b.c,  with  the  account  of  the  "Doric  Migra^ 
tion."  At  this  time  there  existed  a  civilization  in  Southern  Greece  of  a  fairly 
developed  character.  Dr.  Schliemann's  excavations  at  Tiryns  and  Mycenee  have 
revealed  something  of  its  jewelry,  pottery,  and  other  ornamental  art.  Aside  from 
this,  there  are,  at  various  points  in  Greece,  especially  at  the  places  above  named, 
massive  citadel  walls  and  fonifications  of  the  same  period.  This  prehistoric  Greek 
civilization,  of  which  there  are  no  wi'itten  records,  was  overthrown  by  the  Doric 
migration.    The  population  which  possessed  it  was  dispersed  or  subjugated. 

The  Dorians  were  mountaineers  from  Northern  Greece.  The  little  province  of 
Doris,  in  North  Central  Greece,  is  named  after  them,  but  does  not  by  any  means 
represent  the  extent  of  territory  over  which  they  were  spread.  Owing  to  the 
peculiar  topography  of  Eastern  Europe,  with  vast  plains  unbroken  by  mountains, 
sweeping  down  toward  the  south,  the  climate  of  Northern  Greece  corresponds  to 
that  of  the  north  of  Europe,  and  its  early  population  was  of  a  hardy  and  rela- 
tively barbarous  character.  Southern  Greece,  on  the  other  hand,  has  the  climate 
of  Southern  Europe,  on  account  of  the  warm  winds  from  the  Southern  Mediter- 
ranean, and  here  had  consequently  developed  the  earliest  Greek  culture. 

Of  these  hardy  Dorian  invaders,  some  settled  in  extreme  Southern  Greece,  in 
and  about  the  town  of  Sparta.  These  became  the  Spartans.  They  had  taken 
from  the  earlier  population  all  the  most  fertile  lands  of  the  Eurotus  Valley,  but 
this  population  was  not  expelled.  It  was  reduced  to  slavery  or  to  a  state  of 
political  dependence  and  insignificance.  The  Spartans  were  very  much  outnum- 
bered by  this  conquered  popidation,  and  could  only  preserve  their  ascendancy  by 
the  development  of  a  rigid  military  system  of  education,  to  which  they  were  all 
subjected  without  distinction.  A  part  of  this  military  system  was  constant  gym- 
nastic exercise. 


26.     INTER 


lOR   OF   THE   JUPITER   TEMPLE    AT    OLYMPIA.     Restored. 


iT^in 


27.     Temple  of  the  "'Wingless  Victory,"  Athenian  Acropolis. 
28-     Temple  of  Neptune,  Paestum. 


I  O  X  I  C     O  Ji  D  E  U ,  51 

AS  time  went  on  the  military  power  of  the  Spartan  State  proved  itself  superior 
to  every  otlier  in  ( rreece,  and  its  institutions  were  accordingly  respected  and  inii 
tated.  These  institutions,  in  which  every  citizen  was  held  subject  to  military 
ser\ice  without  pay,  at  the  call  of  the  State,  and  in  which  the  gymnastic  education 
of  the  citizen  was  compulsory,  were  not  confined  to  the  Doric  Greeks,  but  they 
were  generally  imitated.  Thus  we  have  explained  the  fact  that  the  Doric  order 
of  architecture  was  not  confined  to  the  Doric  Greeks.  It  reflects  the  influence  on 
the  general  Greek  character  of  their  tastes  and  institutions  under  the  influence 
especially  of  the  Spartans.  For  several  centuries  (until  430  li.c.)  the  Doric  order 
was  univei-sally  employed  in  the  mother  country  and  in  most  of  the  colonies,  aside 
from  those  of  Ionia  proper. 

The  Ionic  Character  and  the  Ionic  Order. — In  the  movement  of  population 
caused  by  the  Doric  migration,  some  of  the  islands  of  the  -,3Sgean  Sea  and  part 
of  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  had  been  settled  by  the  fugitives.  The  name  of 
the  middle  part  of  tliis  coast,  "Ionia,"  gives  the  name  to  the  tribe  in  general. 
The  most  quoted  Ionic  population  remaining  in  Greece  proper  was  that  of  the 
peninsula  of  Attica,  capital  xVthens,  reaching  out  toward  the  islands  and  the 
Asiatic  coast.  The  lonians  were  thus  settled  in  maritime  Greece,  or  on  islands  or 
shores  directly  bordered  by  the  sea.  They  became  the  characteristic  sailor  Greeks, 
just  as  the  Dorians  were  the  characteristic  soldiers.  To  the  vivacity  and  versa- 
tility of  nature,  which  is  proverbial  for  a  maritime  population,  they  added  the 
somewhat  effeminate  and  luxurious  tastes  which  the  influence  of  the  farther  East 
on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  naturally  favored.  On  this  coast  developed  the  first 
great  commercial  cities  of  the  Greeks,  among  them  Smyrna  and  Ephesus,  and 
here  rose  the  school  of  poetry,  about  or  after  1000  B.C.,  represented  by  the 
Homeric  poems.  The  most  famous  temple  of  Ionia,  that  of  Diana  at  Ephesus, 
built  in  the  6th  centurj'-  B.C.,  was  destroyed  by  fire  two  hundred  years  later.  The 
foundations  of  the  later  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  have  lately  been  excavated 
by  the  English  architect,  Mr.  Wood. 

The  Parthenon. — The  Athenians,  although  lonians  by  blood,  had 
for  centuries  been  ruled  by  Doric  institutions,  and  produced  the 
most  famous  monument  of  Doric  architecture  just  before  the  decline 
of  this  style.  This  was  the  Parthenon  (24),  the  temple  of  the  Vir- 
gin Goddess  Minerva  (Greek,  Athen^),  finished  in  438  B.C.  The 
supervising  director  of  this  building  was  the  sculptor  Phidias,  who 
designed  its  sculpture  decorations  now  known  as  the  "Elgin  jVfar- 
bles,"  and  himself  constructed  for  the  interior  a  colossal  gold  and 
ivory  ^Minerva,  long  since  destroyed.  The  present  ruined  condi- 
tion of  this  building  is  the  result  of  a  gunpowder  explosion  in  the 
17th  century.  At  this  time  Greece  and  Athens  were  in  the  hands 
of  the  Turks.  During  a  war  with  th(^  Venetians,  the  Turks  used 
the  building  as  a  powder  magazine,  and  tliis  was  exploded  by  a 
bomb  thrown  by  the  Venetian  attacking  force. 

The  Propylaea.  or  entrance  gates  to  the  Acropolis  (Citadel  Hill), 


52  THE     PROPYL^A. 

on  which  the  Parthenon  stood,  were  a  scarcely  less  famous  struct- 
ure (30).  They  were  completed,  also  under  the  direction  of  Phidias, 
between  43  7  and  430  B.C.  On  account  of  the  extra  height  required 
for  the  columns  of  the  passage-way,  these  were  made  of  the  Ionic 
order,  whose  proportions  are  more  slender  than  the  Doric.  This  is 
a  rare  case  of  m.ixture  of  the  orders,  which,  in  the  Greek  period, 
were  usually  confined  to  distinct  buildings.  Even  m  the  case  of 
distinct  buildings,  the  orders  were  not  in  general  use  simultaneously. 
They  represent,  on  the  contrary,  successive  tendencies  of  Greek 
history.  The  Ionic  order  appeared  in  Ionia  at  an  earlier  date  than 
elsewhere ;  and  the  Doric  did  not.  absolutely  disappear  after  the 
Ionic  fashion  became  general.  Still,  it  is  true  in  the  general  sense, 
that  these  styles,  considered  as  dominant  fashions  in  the  mother 
country,  are  successive  and  not  contemporaneous.  They  represent 
the  distinction  between  the  period  of  conservative  tendencies,  relig- 
ious belief,  and  stern  patriotism,  and  the  period  of  refined  luxury, 
religious  skepticism,  and  political  decay. 

The  Ionic  Replaced  the  Doric  in  the  5th  century  B.C.  Athens 
was  then  the  center  of  Greek  life,  at  once  in  politics,  in  literature, 
and  in  art,  and  here  was  consummated  the  social  revolution  through 
which  the  Ionic  order  came  into  general  use,  after  430  B.C. 

This  was  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  "War  (431-404  B.C.),  which  is  univer- 
sally conceded  to  have  been  the  tuniing-point  in  Greek  history,  after  which 
patriotic  conservatism  and  the  old  Doric  modes  of  life  were  replaced  by  more 
refined  and  effeminate  tendencies,  which  terminated  a  century  later  in  the  down- 
fall of  the  independent  Greek  States.  Greek  history  proper  ends  with  the  battle 
of  Chaeronea,  338  B.C.,  when  Philip  of  Macedon  defeated  the  Athenians  and  their 
aUies  izi  the  struggle  to  preserve  Greece  from  Macedonian  conquest. 

The  Period  of  fhe  Ionic  Order,  when  generally  diffused  over 
Greece,  is,  in  round  numbers,  from  430  to  330  B.C.,  and  this  period 
is  the  last  of  Greek  history,  considered  as  the  history  of  the  old 
independent  Greek  States. 

The  Erechtheium*  is  the  most  famous  Ionic  building  and  ruin. 
Also  on  the  Athenian  Acropolis ;  it  was  constructed  between  430  and 
400  B.C.  Here  was  preserved  a  statue  of  Minerva  much  more  ancient 
than  the  building.     This  had  been  rescued  by  the  Athenians  when 

*  The  view  at  29  is  taken  from  drawings  made  soon  after  the  middle  of  the  18th  century 
(by  Stuart  and  Revett),  when  the  huiiding  was  in  much  better  preservation  than  at  present 
The  Erechtheium  also  appears  at  30,  on  the  left. 


w 
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P 

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C 


30.    ACROPOLIS 


•  4     V   ««   •      «      «' 


s< 


ATHENS.    Restored. 


01 

a 
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B 


a. 

3 
—t 

a 

.2 
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6 
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U 


IONIC     RUINS.  ^"^ 


the  Persians  captured  Athens  in  480  B.C.,  and  destroyed  the  old 
buildings  on  the  Acropolis.  The  new  Erechtheiuni  was  thus  erected 
on  the  site  of  an  older  building,  whose  kregular  grounel  plan  was 
followed  in  the  new  structure  from  a  sentiment  of  reverence  and 
reh-ious  tradition.  The  name  of  the  temple  is  derived  imm  an 
Athenian   king   and   hero   of  the   mythical  period,  whose  tomb  was 

beneath  the  structure.  ,, 

The  Little  Temple  of  Nike  Apteros,  or  "A\mgless  Victory, 
generaUy  so  called,  but  now  known  to  have  been  a  temple  of 
Minerva,  has  been  chosen  as  type  of  the  Ionic  in  illustration  (2  7) 
because  the  small  size  of  the  building  allows  a  larger  view  c.f  i  s 
details.  It  appears  in  the  restored  view  30,  on  the  right.  This  little 
temple,  also  on  the  Acropolis,  was  built  about  twenty  years  before 
the  Erechtheium.  Its  small  dimensions  show  how  modestly  tne  style 
first  made  its  appearance  beside  the  older  Doric  at  Athens. 

Historical  Explanation  of  the  Corinthian  Order,  so  called.-The  overthrow  of  Greek 
Historical  cxpiauciL  u  t3u;k,-,   wn^   iniinediatelv    followed    by   a 

independence    by   the   Macedonian    Kuig   Phi  ip   ^^as   ^'"^^^^^  ^^^^J    Alexander  the 
Macedonian-Greek  conquest  of  the  Persian  Empire,  '^'^^'^Jl^f;;^^^^^^       e 
Great.    Tl.is  empire,  reaching  from  the    shores  of    ^-%^^^"°^  „^^,^/^  "l^'    ,^ 
Indus  (p.  37),  and  including  Eg,Tt,  1-ul  its  center  in  the  home  of  I'^^^/^^'^l 
and  cLJ;  States,   the   Tigris-Euphrates  ^^^^^^ ^^^  ^t^'Z^^ 
pared  by  a  gradual  introduction   and  spread  of  ^^VfZll^^to  the  Eastern 
countries,  and  it  was  followed  by  a  heavy  migration  of  Greek     mto 
world      First  as  -overnors  and  soldiers,  then  as  men  of  ait  and  science,  ana  m 
TbtinL    t^    Sreeks  spread  through  the  West  Oriental  countries^  fcmndmg  .v 
Lependeni  Greek  cities,  li.e  Antioch  in  ^^ia^^^  Ale— ^^ 
intermarrj-ing   and   amalgamating    with    the    ^^"f^    J^^^;;"  ^  ^^,^^  ^.f^re  the 
grew  up  on  the  ruins  of  the  Persian  Empire,  ^^^^^^^^  ''^\.   Roman 
beginning   of   the  Christian    era    ^a.l    -arly  f  /^  ';7.^^f  ^^;^^t,,i,,  ,,,,,,,,  East 
Empire.     (The  Greeks  of   the  Tigns-Euphrates   \^^lle>    an  I  coum 
were,  however,  subdued  by  the  Parthian  heir,  of  the  P-^-^^^^^;^,^  "^  ,,,,,^ 

I.  this  period  of  Gr^ek  history,  the  mother  country  was  -'^^^'[fl^^^^^^ 
but  the  Greek  language,  art,  and  science  had  begun  t  --  -^^^^^^^^^^^         ^    -hze^^ 
world.    Under  the  Roman  rule  they  were  to  conquer  Italy  ^"f  ^^'^  J^^ 
the  Western  Mediterranean,  and  then  descend  tolater  ^^  ^^  ^    /^f  Gr     fife 
of  the  Roman  name  and  period.    The  earlier  simplicity  ami  pun  >  ^^ 
and  taste  were,  however,  replaced  by  more  luxurious  tastes,  and  more  corrupt 

nation.  i.„„/i,-r.o-  r,f    the   word    "  Corin- 

These   explanations   are   necessary  to   an   "-^^^f"^"^^  of   the   w  r 

thian"  as  applied   to  the  luxurious  Ionic  order   of  !  ^  ^  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  from  the  great  Greek  ^^^J^^J;:^^,^  I  the 
Alexandria,  the  period  is   so  -^^^^\''''^^'\}^.,^'^^^^^ 

Isthmus,  through  which  passed  so  much  of  ^^^^  ^I^l^^"^^^"^^";;^"'"^^^   .^  ^^^^  ^^^^ 
a  rich  and  luxm^ous  city  in  days  before  the  Alexandrine  penod.  and 


58  CORINTHIAN     RUINS. 

when  riches  and  luxury  were  the  rule,  "Corinthian"  was  the  adjective  naturally 
used  for  the  taste  of  the  time.  It  may  be  also  that  a  Corinthian  architect  perfected 
or  beautified  the  capital  so  named,  but  there  is  evidence  to  show  that  it  has  an 
Oriental  origin. 

The  Corinthian  Capital  has  a  body  corresponding  to  the  shape 
of  the  column  itself,  but  this  is  overlaid  and  concealed  by  leaves 
(p.  00).  In  general  proportions  and  essential  details  the  Corinthian 
order,  as  already  noted,  is  simply  the  Ionic ;  but  generally  with 
ornamental  details  somewhat  more  elaborated  (text-cut,  p.  6).     - 

The  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates  at  Athens  (31)  is  the 
earliest  known,  and  also  the  most  beautiful  example  of  the  Corin- 
thian order,  as  respects  the  capitals ;  but  these  capitals  have  been 
so  damaged  that  restored  drawings  are  necessary  to  an  appreciation 
of  their  former  beauty.  This  little  building  is  a  round  structure,  of 
slender  proportions,  erected  to  support  a  bronze  tripod,  which  has 
disappeared.  The  tripod  was  a  form  consecrated  by  sacrificial  uses 
in  the  Greek  religion,  and  hence  was  one  of  the  usual  prizes  in  the 
contests  of  Greek  dramatic  choruses.  The  tripod  in  question  was  a 
prize  won  by  the  chorus  Avhich  was  supported  by  the  Athenian  Lj'sic- 
rates.    Hence  the  name  "Choragic  Monument." 

The  date  (334:  b.c.)  of  this  building  marks  the  general  introduc- 
tion of  the  Corinthian  style  into  Greece  and  into  the  Greek  countries. 
It  corresponds  nearly  to  the  general  date  for  Alexander  the  Great's 
conquest  of  the  Persian  Empire  (about  333  B.C.),  and  to  the  date  for 
the  battle  of  Cheronsea,  just  noted. 

Later  Architectural  Remains  of  the  Corinthian  order,  between  the 
time  of  the  Choragic  Monument  and  the  period  of  the  Roman 
Empire  are  almost  absolutely  unknown,  owing  to  the  wholesale 
destruction  of  the  ancient  monuments.  This  latter  period  has 
however,  left  abundant  remains  of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  manj 
of  great  beauty.  These  belong  to  the  early  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era.  The  general  use  of  the  Corinthian  order  in  the 
Roman  imperial  period,  in  all  countries  of  the  Empire,  is  onp 
phase  of  the  general  fact  that  the  culture  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
which  comprised  so  many  countries  which  had  been  previously 
Alexandrine  Greek,  had  also  in  general  an  Alexandrine  Greek 
origin. 

The  Ruins  of  the  Olympian  Jupiter  Temple  at  Athens  (32),  may 
be  mentioned   as   among  these  later  monuments,   dating   from   the 


U  K  i«;  i!-  K     U  K  I)  E  K  S     CO  M  T  A  1<  K  I) .  59 

Roman  Emperor  Hadrian,  and  the  second  century  after  Christ.  Other 
remains  of  the  Jiomau  period  will  bo  noted  in  the  corresponding 
section. 

Details  of  the  Doric  and  Ionic  Orders  Compared. — Having  considered,  first,  the 
general  plan  and  use  of  the  Greek  temple,  and  second,  the  historical  sequence  of 
the  Greek  orders  and  tlieir  correspondence,  as  to  time  and  taste,  with  the  broadest 
facts  of  Greek  history,  we  may  now  notice  the  contrasts  of  the  orders  in  detail. 
These  orders,  as  already  noted,  are  essentially  only  two  in  number,  and  the  folhnv- 
ing  matter  applies  eijually  to  the  Corinthian  and  the  Ionic,  with  exception  for  the 
capitals  alone. 

Contrast  in  Proportions  of  the  Column. — For  following  matter  compare  27  with 
24  and  28.  (See  also  text-cut  at  page  6.)  The  proportions  of  the  Doric  column 
are  hea\'y',  and  those  of  the  Ionic  are  light  and  slender.  This  distinction  has  no 
reference  to  the  actual  size,  but  to  the  relations  of  height  and  diameter.  Tlie 
average  height  of  the  shaft  of  th'3  Doric  column  is  from  5  to  5i  diameters.  The 
average  height  of  the  Ionic  shaft  is  from  8i  to  9i  diameters. 

The  Doric  Order  has  no  Base,  and  its  shaft  rests  directly  on  the  platfonn  of 
the  stnicture.  This  absence  of  bases  enhances  the  effect  of  the  heavy  proportions 
in  the  columns,  which  would  gain  in  height,  and  therefore  in  appeai-ance  of  slen- 
derness,  if  supported  by  such  a  member.  The  slender  proportions  of  the  Ionic 
shaft  are,  on  the  other  hand,  enhanced  by  the  additional  elevation  which  the  base 
gives  to  the  column^ 

The  Intercolumnar  Distances,  or  spaces  between  the  columns,  are  narrow  in  the 
Doric  order,  and  do  n(jt  much  exceed  the  diameter  of  the  column  itself  (average, 
1^  diameters).  This  contributes  also  to  the  massive  effect  of  the  order.  The  Ionic 
columns,  although  more  slender,  are  also  spaced  in  relatively  wider  distances 
(average,  2^  diameters). 

Diminution  of  the  Shaft. — All  Greek  columns  diminish  slightly  in  size  from  the 
foot  toward  the  neck.  In  the  Doric  order  this  diminution  is  quite  emphatic ;  the 
converging  sides  of  the  shaft  give  an  effect  of  steadfastness  and  security,  tending 
to  that  seen  in  the  form  of  the  pyramid.  The  diminution  from  below  upward  in 
proportions  of  the  Ionic  shaft  is  so  slight,  that  the  reduced  size  of  a  picture  will 
not  show  it.  It  is  none  the  less,  here  as  in  the  Doric,  a  delicate  indication  of  that 
natural  physical  law  that  pressure  increases  from  above  downward,  and  that 
physical  resistance  must  also  increase  from  above  downward.  As  in  the  case  of 
the  Florentine  palaces  noted  at  page  26,  there  is  no  physical  necessity  for  this 
construction.    It  is  an  artistic  and  {esthetic  emphasis  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  eye. 

Curves  of  the  Shaft. — The  diminution  inentioned  is  not  produced  by  straight 
lines,  but  in  the  outlines  of  all  Greek  columns  there  is  a  delicate  convex  curve. 
This  curve  is  called  the  Entasis.  On  account  of  the  marked  diminution  of  the 
Doric  shaft,  the  convex  curves  in  the  rising  lines  of  the  shaft  are  most  pronounced 
in  the  Doric.  The  curves  may  be  conceived  as  representing  an  ela.stic  and  %igorou3 
supporting  power  against  the  weight  above,  as  opposed  to  one  of  dead  resistance. 
It  may  be  that  the  converging  lines  of  the  Greek  column  were  intended  to  enhance 
the  perspective  diminution  and  consequent  appearance  of  size.  The  cux-ves  would 
assist  this  perspective  illusion.  It  has  been  supposed  by  some  authorities  that  the 
curves  are  intended  to  correct  an  optical  appearance  of  inward  deflection  toward 
the  center  in  the  exterior  hues  of  the  shaft. 


60 


GREEK    ORDERS    COMPARED. 


Doric  Capital,   Parthenon. 


M^ifraprawEfCTifj^ 


Flutings  of  the  Column. — All  the  orders,  as  far  as  the  Greek  monuments  are 
concerned,  have  fluted  columns.  That  is,  the  shafts  are  channeled  in  the  perpen- 
dicular direction  by  a  series  of  curved  grooves 
or  furrows.  These  flutings  have  partly  the  pu?.- 
pose  of  uniting  the  various  "  drums "  or  pieces 
of  the  shaft  into  a  single  whole,  and  of  prevent- 
ing the  cross-sections  of  tlie  joints  of  the  various 
pieces  from  breaking  the  effect  of  perpendicular 
unity.  But  in  cases  where  a  relatively  small 
size  of  the  shaft  allowed  it  to  be  quarried  in  a 
single  block  the  flutings  are  also  found,  so  that 
this  could  not  be  the  sole  explanation.  The 
flutings  may  then  be  also  understood  as  a  deco- 
ration emphasizing  the  perpendicular  line,  and 
l^leasing  the  eye  by  an  agreeable  and  regular 
variation  of  lights  and  shadows  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  shaft. 

There  is  a  distinction  in  the  character 
of  the  flutings  of  the  two  orders.  The  Doric 
flutings  are  wide  and  shallow,  and  are  sep- 
arated only  by  the  sharp  edges  formed 
by  the  meeting  of  two  concave  curves.  The 
Ionic  flutings  are  narrow  and  deep,  and  are 
separated  by  intervals  of  plane  surface,  form- 
ing a  series  of  perpendicular  bands.  This 
distinction  is  explained  by  its  results  in  the 
effects  of  the  shadows  which  the  flutings 
cast.     The   deep    and   narrow   flutings  cast  a 

heavy  shadow,  and  each  perpendicular  dark  line   of  shadow  is  emphasized  by  its 

distinct  separation  from  tlie  others.  The 
slender  effect  of  the  Ionic  is  much  increased 
by  these  perpendicular  shadow  stripings.  The 
shallowness  of  the  Doric  flutings  is  such,  that 
the  shadow  lines,  falling  mainly  only  at  the 
sharp  edges  of  separation,  do  not  essentially 
detract  from  its  heavy  proportions.  Thus, 
too,  would  be  explained  the  fact  that  the 
flutings  are  more  numerous  in  the  Ionic 
(twenty-eight  flutings)  and  less  numerous  in 
the  Doric  (twenty  flutings  ;  in  early  temples, 
sixteen).  That  is,  the  slender  shaft  has 
heavier  perpendicular  shadows  and  more  of 
them,  while  the  thick-set  shaft  has  lighter 
perpendicular  shadows  and  less  of  them. 

The    Doric    Capital. — At    the   neck    of   the 
shaft,  and   just   below  the   capital,    the   Doric 
column   is  cut  by  one  or  more  incisions  hori- 
zontally, giving  the  effect  in  shadow  of   a  ring  about  the  neck  of  the  shaft.     This 
cut  is  intended  to  mark  off  and  distinguish  the  capital  from  the  shaft.     The  Doric 


Ionic  Capital,   Erechtheium. 


Corinthian  Ca-pital,  Choragic  monument   of 
Lysicrates. 


G  H  E  E  K     ()  U  D  E  R  S    COMPARED. 


61 


capital  was  called  by  the  Greeks  the  Echinus,  from  its  resemblance  to  a  kettle  or 

caldron.      Its    shape  is   best    de- 
scribed by  the  illustration  of  the 

text-cut,    p.    60,    or   by  the    col- 
umns seen  in  25  and  26. 

The  Ionic  Capital  is  also  best 

described  by  the  text-cut  (p.  60). 

Tlae   volutes,  which   are   its  dis- 
tinguishing feature,  are  derived 

from  the  downward  curling  calyx 

leaves  of  a  conventional  form  of 

lotus    used    in    ancient    Oriental 

decoration,     and     derived    from 

Egypt.       The    entire     flower    is 

found  on  Cypriote  vases,  and  on 

Cj'priote  tombstones,  dating  from 

the  6th  and  7th  centuries  B.C. 
The    Corinthian    Capital    lias 

already  been  described  (text-cut, 

p.  60). 

In     Greek     use,     there     was 

much    freedom    and    variety   in 

the  treatment  and  details  of  the 

capitals    of   the   various    orders. 

No  two   buildings  of    the    same 

order   are   exactly  alike  in  this, 

or  in  any  respect. 

The    Abacus    is     the    square 

plate   of  stone  which   rests  on   the  capital  and  supports  the  beam   above.     In  the 

Doric    order,   the   abacus  is    a    large   and   prominent  member.     In   the   Ionic,  the 

abacus  is  represented  only  by  a  thin  plate  of  stone, 
or  disappears  entirely. 

The  Beams  are  Distinguished  as  Architrave  and 
Frieze. — Both  taken  together,  are  called  the  "entab- 
lature." The  lower  line  of  beams  is  called  the 
architrave.  The  word  frieze  is  applied  to  the  upper 
Line  of  beams,  but  the  same  word  is  also  used  to 
define  a  horizontal  band  of  decoration  in  general, 
whether  it  be  on  the  inside  or  outside  upper  portion 
of  a  wall,  or  elsewhere. 

The  Architrave  has  an  undecorated  surface  in 
the  Doric  order.  The  Ionic  architrave  has  three 
horizontal  divisions.  Each  one  of  the  two  upper 
divisions  juts  forward  a  little  over  the  one  beneath 
it.  The  effect,  as  seen  from  the  front,  is  that  of  a 
beam  divided  into  three  sections  by  two  horizontal 
lines.  The  divisions  are  said  to  be  imitations  of 
the    overlapping    l»oards     of    an     ancient    style    of 

wooden  construction.    This  resemblance  is  an  assistance  to  a  verbal  description  of 


Scheme  of  Doric  Temple  Construction,  Parthenon. 


Acroterium  of  the  Parthenon. 


62 


GREEK    ORDERS    COMPARED. 


'^M,MMMM^^.-^M.'mM'i^J^^M^ 


n  n 


^MkMMhMUk^^^ 


the  Ionic  architrave,  and  may  explain  its  origin,  but  it  is  not  likely  that  imitation 
of  wooden  consti'uction  was  the  motive  of  this  use  in  the  perfected  stone  Ionic. 
The   motive  was,  doubtless,  to  relieve   the   surface  of  the  beam  of  a  bare  appeai'- 

ance,  which,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
easily  tolerated  by  the  spirit  of  the 
Doric  order.  In  Certain  cases,  however, 
the  Doric  architrave  was  decorated  by 
affixed  gold  or  gilded  shields. 

The  Doric  Frieze  is  spaced  in  sec- 
tions by  a  series  of  triglyphs  (28  and 
text-cut),  arranged,  one  over  each-  col- 
umn, and  one  over  each  intercolumnar 
space.  Thus  the  triglyphs  duplicate  the 
number  of  the  columns.  The  triglyphs 
consist  of  perpendicular  bands  of  stone, 
three  in  number,  separated  by  grooves. 
The  spaces  between  the  triglyphs 
are  called  Metopes.  They  are  generally 
decorated  with  sculpture  in  relief. 

The  Cornice  has  a  more  elaborate 
outline  in  profile,  and  a  more  decora- 
tive molding,  in  the  Ionic  and  Corin- 
thian styles ;  a  simpler  and  heavier 
character  in  the  Doric.  The  under  sur- 
face of  the  Doric  cornice  is  decorated 
with  a  series  of  m^ules,  flat,  rectangu- 
lar, projected  suiWces  on  which  are 
drops,  or  guftce. 

The  Pediment  or  Gable  is  distin- 
guished in  all  the  Greek  orders  by  its 
low  (wide  or  obtuse)  angle.  This  angle 
is  more  acute  in  the  Boman  period 
(coinpare  the  Pantheon,  39).  The  space 
within  the  lines  of  the  gable  was  deco- 
rated with  sculpture.  Ornaments,  called  Acroteria,  were  placed  on  the  summit  of 
the  gable  and  at  the  lower  extremities  of  its  sides. 

Irregularities  of  Construction. — A  remarkable  featui'e  of  Greek  Temple  archi- 
tecture is  the  general  absence  of  rectilinear  and  of  exactly  perpendicular  lines. 
Irregularities  in  the  sizes  of  corresponding  members — columns,  capitals,  abaci, 
triglyphs,  and  metopes,  and  in  the  spacings  between  them,  are  also  general.  The 
peculiar  delicacy  of  the  masonry  construction  has  admitted  of  an  examination  in 
detail,  which  proves  that  these  various  irregularities  of  size,  proportion,  and  align- 
ment were  a  part  of  the  intended  construction.  The  observation  of  these  pecul- 
iarities is  comparatively  recent,  and  their  purpose  is  still  in  debate. 

The  first  noted  and  most  curious  of  these  refinements  is  that  relating  to  the 
deviations  from  rectilinear  alignment. 

The  Horizontal  Curves. — It  was  observed,  in  1837,  by  Mr.  Pennethome,  an 
English  architect,  that  the  steps  of  the  substructure  (stylohate)  of  the  Parthenon, 
and  the  substructure  itself,  are  constructed  in  curved  lines  rising  from  the  corners 


Ionic   Entablature,  Priene. 


TllK    lUHdZuNTAL    CUllVES. 


63 


toward  the  center  of  each  side.  Corresponding  but  not  exactly  parallel  curves  are 
found  in  the  upper  lines  of  the  buiUling.  Tlie  amount  of  the  curve  on  the  long 
sides  of  the  Parthenon  is  only  about  four  and  a  half  inches  in  about  two  hundred 
and  twenty  feet.  That  is  to  say,  this  is  the  amount  of  deviation  upward  from  an 
Imaginary  exactly  horizontal  line,  at  the  center  of  the  curve.  The  measurements 
which  demonstrated  the  intentional  construction  of  these  curves  were  made  by  the 
English  architect,  Mr.  Penrose,  in  184G.  A  passage  directing  the  construction  of 
such  curves  is  found  in  the  ancient  author,  Vitruvius,  wlio  wrote  a  work  on  archi- 
secture  in  the  1st  century  of  the  Christian  era,  at  Rome.  Although  the  work  of 
"Vitru\aus  had  been  well  known  to  modern  students  since  about  loOO  a.d.,  this 
passage  had  attracted  no  attention  before  the  date  of  the  discovery  of  the  curves 
in  the  ruins  themselves — another  illustration  of  the  very  recent  origin  of  the 
interest  in  Greek  art  (see  page  8).  Vitruvius  adds  the  explanation  that  the  lines 
of  the  building  would  otherwise  appear  deflected  in  the  downward  direction  (from 
the  ends  toward  the  center).  In  the  case  of  a  gable,  there  is  no  doubt  an  optical 
appearance  of  deflection  downward  in  the  straight  line  under  it.  As  regards  the 
main  horizontal  lines  of  the  temples,  when  seen  from  below  and  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  angles,  there  may  be  a  similar  optical  effect  of  downward  deflection 
in  th«  direction  away  from  the  angle.*  Consequently,  it  has  been  supposed  by 
some  writers,  that  the  curves  were  intended  to  counteract  an  illusion  of  this  kind, 
which  would  have  tended  to  an  appearance  of  sagging  downward  and  weakness 
in  the  building.  Tn  this  connection  it  may  be  observed  that  the  Greek  temples 
were  generally  placed  on  an  elevation,  and  they  were  always  on  a  raised  plat- 
form, so  that  even  the  lines  of  the  substructure  were  frequently  above  the  level 
of  the  eye  of  an  approaching  spectator. 

"With  other  authorities,  especially  with  those  inclined  to  consider  the  taste  and 
knowledge  of  the  ^rie  of  Vitruvius  as  inferior  to  that  of  the  Greeks  in  the  5th 
century  B.C.,  and  thus  inclined   also  to  consider  his  explanation  as  only  partially 


"T  ?.«. 


i'  5.S 


Ionic  Columnar  bases,   Athens. 

adequate,  various  other  theories  have  been  advanced.  One  of  these  supposes  that 
the  curves  were  intended  to  enhance  the  effects  of  size  in  the  Vmildings  according 
to  the  principles  of  curvilinear  perspective.  Another  view  holds  that  the  curves 
of  the  substructure  were  intended  to  offer  an  appearance  of  elastic  resistance  to 
the  weight  resting  on  them,  and  that  the  upper  lines  were  curved  to  correspond. 


•  Thiersch,  "Optische  Taxischungen  aiif  dem  Qebiete  der  Architectur"  ("Optical  IlltiBions  in 
Architecture  "). 


64 


GREEK    TEMPLE    ARCHITECTURE. 


Still  another  theory  regards  the  curves  as  an  expression  of  Greek  distaste  for  stiff 
and  formal  lines,  and  for  exactly  mathematical  forms,  and  connects  them  with 
the  other  irregularities  above  mentioned,  which  are  supposed  to  indicate,  and  result 
from,  a  similar  feeling.  It  is  quite  likely  that  all  these  different  views  are  correct. 
It  may  be,  however,  that  the  Greeks  themselves  were  not  very  distinctly  con- 
scious of  having  any  \'iews  whatever  on  the  subject.  The  delicacy  of  their  taste 
may  have  led  them  to  prefer  the  curved  Hnes  without  formulating  any  prin- 
ciple or  theory  about  them. 

NOTES    ON    THE    ILLUSTRATIONS    FOR    GREEK    TEMPLE    ARCHITECTXTRE. 

(22-32,  inclusive.) 

Illustrations  for  the  Doric  Order.— See  Nos.  22,  24,  25,  26,  27. 

Illustrations  for  the  Ionic  Order.— See  Nos.  28,  29. 

Illustrations  for  the  Corinthian  Order. — See  ISTos.  31,  32. 

Restorations.— See  Nos.  25,  26,  28,  29,  30.  No.  30  shows  the  Propyleea  in 
front,  the  Erechtheium  on  the  left,  the  Parthenon  in  the  center,  and  the  temple 
of  "Wingless  Victory"  on  the  right.  The  restorations  of  interiors  at  25  and  26 
offer  suggestions  as  to  mode  of  lighting  the  temples,  which  are  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  conclusive  (see  p.  44). 

The  Text-cuts  are  intended  to  supplement  and  illustrate  the  foregoing  mat- 
ter relating  to  the  details  of  the  orders.  The  "  Egg  and  Dart  "  molding  herewith 
in  the  text-cut  is  an  enlarged  view  of  a  common  Ionic  molding  seen  on  the  Ionic 


s  FEl  Ej  mJ  s  rnJ  El 

m 


pMrRJIffit  IrMJ  ISirS 


Typical  surface  ornament  in 
color.  Conventional  lotuses 
and  "  palmettes,"  and  Greek 
"fret"  or  "meander."  From 
the  Parthenon. 


Egg  and  Dart  Molding. 


capital  and  on  the  Ionic  entablature  in  text-cuts.  This  molding  is  also  very  com- 
mon in  modern  decoration,  as  borrowed  from  the  ancient  Greek.  Still  more  famil- 
iar in  modern  surface  ornament  are  the  patterns  of  conventional  lotuses  and 
"palmettes,"  and  the  ornament  known  as  the  Greek  "fret,"  "meander,"  or  "key 
pattern,"  herewith  in  text-cut.  Compare  the  "palmette"  in  text-cut  for  the  Aero 
terium  of  the  Parthenon,  also  a  typical  Greek  and  modern  form. 


ROMAN   IMPERIAL  PERIOD. 

Deficiency  of  Earlier  Monuments. — In  all  aspects  of  Roman  life 
and  history,  it  is  inipurtant  to  separate  tlie  views  based  on  existing 
remains  from  the  facts  relating  to  earlier  periods  which  have  left 
little  or  nothing  to  later  times.  For  the  history  of  art,  and  for 
studies  which  are  not  distinctly  arcluuological  in  pm'pose,  the  Impe- 
rial period  is  the  only  one  to  be  considered,  as  it  is  also  the  one 
which  has  left  by  far  the  largest  amount  of  material  for  studj^ 

Greek  Influence. — Remembering  that  the  Alexandrine  Greek  his- 
tory, after  330  B.C.  (see  page  51),  embraces  a  number  of  countries 
which  subsequently  became  portions  of  the  Roman  Emoire,  that  Italy 
had  been  under  mediate  Greek  influences  from  an  early  time,  and 
that  the  Roman  countries  of  the  Western  Mediterranean  largely 
owed  their  civilization  to  Greek  Oriental  sources,  we  shall  be  pre- 
pared to  understand  that  the  history  of  Imperial  Roman  art  is  in 
sequence  to  the  Greek,  and  describes  the  continuation  of  it,  and  its 
ultimate  mixture  Avith  foreign  elements. 

A  Sketch  of  Italiacuand  Roman  History  before  the  Imperial  period 
and  the  time  of  existing  reihains  is  also  essential  to  exact  views  of 
the  subject. 

Down  to  the  time  of  Ale^fander  the  Great  and  the  close  of  the 
history  of  the ^  Greek  republics,  the  Roman  territory  was  onh'  a 
small  portion  of  Italy,  south  of  the  lower  Tiber.  The  Latin  tribe 
over  which  the  Roman  city  (founded  about  750  B.C.)  Iiad  extended 
its  rule,  and  which  had  also  been  admit te(l  to  Roman  pi'ivileges 
and  citizenship,  was  distinguished  b}^  great  political  and  practical 
virtues,  and  by  capacity  for  military  discipline,  but  in  comparison 
with  other  Italian  nations,  was  backward  in  culture  and  art,  and  in 
these  respects  was  dependent  on  them.  Tims.  t(^  understand  the 
later  Roman  art,  we  have  first  to  understand  that  of  the  rest  of 
Itah',  especially  as  the  rest  of  Italy  ultimately  became  Roman  in 
government  and  name. 

Italy  did  not,  for  ancient  geographers,  comprehend  the  Northern 


66  ROMAN     IMPERIAL     PERIOD. 

Po  Valley  above  the  Apennines,  until  shortly  before  the  Christian 
era.  Its  most  important  nations  were  the  Etruscans  and  Samnites. 
These  may  be  considered,  broadh^,  as  controlling  tke  most  fertile 
parts  of  Italy  above  and  below  the  Latin  tribe,  respectively.  Around 
the  South  Italian  shores  was  a  line  of  Greek  colonial  cities  of  great 
wealth  and  importance.  Before  the  date  of  these  Greek  settlements 
(mainh'  of  the  7th  and  6th  centuries  B.C.),  the  Etruscans  and  Sam- 
nites had  been  largely  dependent  on  the  Oriental  civilizations, 
through  the  medium  of  Phoenician  commerce.  After  this  time,  the 
same  influences  continued,  but  were  colored  and  overlaid  by  Greek 
characteristics.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  Etruscan  alphabet  was  bor- 
rowed  from  the  Greek.  So  intimate  were  the  commercial  rcla-tions, 
that  the  multitude  of  Greek  vases  found  in  Etruscan  tombs  formerly 
led  to  the  presumption  that  the  Greek  vases  were  Etrliscan: 

Conquest  of  Italy. — In  fifty  years  after  the  time  of  Alexander, 
the  Romans  had  mastered  the  Etruscan,  Samnite,  and  Greek  terri- 
tories. Their  policy  was  to  adopt  a  portion  of  the  conquered  popu- 
lations into  their  own  political  system,  and  also  to  spread  through 
the  conquered  territories  colonies  of  their  own  citizens,  which  thus 
came  under  the  Italian  influences  of  their  immediate  neighborhood. 
Thus,  for  a  double  reason,  the  later  "Roman"  art  was  that  of  Italy 
in  general. 

The  Roman  Empire. — Carthage  had  become  mistress  of  most  of 
the  West  Mediterranean  shores  and  islands,  about  300  B.C.,  and  had 
controlled  parts  of  them  for  many  centuries  before  this  time.  In 
the  third  century  B.C.,  the  Romans  began  a  contest  with  Carthage 
for  the  jpossession  of  Sicily,  which  finally  ended  in  the  Roman  con- 
trol of  all  the  Western  Mediterranean,  about  200  b.  c.  At  this  time, 
the  Phoenician  culture  and  art  had  already  adopted  a  Greek  color- 
ing, and  had  at  least  a  superficial  Greek  character.  Thus,  under 
"Roman"  influences,  viz.,  those  of  Italy  in  general,  the  Western 
Mediterranean  countries  continued  in  that  path  which  thej^  had 
already  entered  before  the  Roman  conquest.  The  extension  of 
Roman  government  over  the  Greek  States  of  the  East  began  soon 
after  200  b.c,  and  continued  until  shortly  before  the  time  of  the 
Christian  era.  At  this  time,  under  the  first  Emperor  Augustus,  the 
boundaries  of  the  Empire  were  nearly  those  of  later  time. 

Roman  Art. — In  the  "Roman"  art  of  the  Imperial  time,  we  include 
the  remains  of  all  these  various  countries.    In  all  of  them,  the  same 


33.  Hall  in  the  Baths  of  Caracalla,   Rome.     Restored  vicA-. 

34.  Ruins  of  an   Aqueduct,    near  Rome. 


C    '     ,    c 


c    c^     c  c      • 


35,     THE    ROMAN 


RUM.     Restored  view. 


35.     The  Porta  Maggiore,  Rome. 
37.     Basilica  of  Constantine,  Rome. 


KOMA.N      1  M  I'KlliAL     i'EKiOD.  71 

general  character  prevails.  It  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that, 
in  all  these  cases,  this  "  Roman "  art  was  transported  bodily,  by 
Roman  intervention,  to  these  countries.  The  Roman  art  is  that  of 
the  countries  which  became  Jioman,  and  this  art  was  a  general 
expression  of  the  civilization  in  the  Mediterranean  basin  at  this 
time.  As  Spain,  Britain,  Frauci',  and  Soutli  Germany  were  lirst 
generally  brought  within  the  area  of  Mediterranean  civilization  by 
the  Roman  conquests,  these  are  the  countries  in  which  a  distinct 
''Roman"  introduction  and  dissemination  of  this  civilization  took 
place.  But  in  these  countries,  also,  an  earlier  Phoenician  or  Greek 
influence  had  prepared  the  way  for  the  "Romans,"  and  was  in  no 
way  antagonized  or  overthrown  by  the  inlkience  which  succeeded. 
It  is  true,  however,  for  all  i)ro\inces,  Eastern  as  well  as  Western, 
that  the  Empire  had  a  capital  of  great  importance  and  far-reaching 
influence,  and  that  the  great  force  and  practical  nature  of  the 
original  Roman  blood  stamped  a  certain  element  of  its  own  charac- 
ter on  the  remotest  portions  of  its  provinces,  and  on  their  art. 

The  General  Use  of  the  Arch  is  a  striking  feature  in  remains  of 
"Roman"  architecture.  In  Italy,  the  remains  prove  that  the  arch 
was  used  by  the  Etruscans,  at  an  early  date,  for  city  gates,  sewers, 
and  drainage  constructions,  and  it  was  emploj^ed  probably  in  build- 
ings as  well.  The  intimate  relations  of  the  Etruscans  with  Egypt 
and  Assyria,  through  Phoenician  commerce,  would  explain  this  use. 
It  was  from  the  Etruscans  that  the  early  Romans  adopted  the  arch, 
as  well  as  other  elements  of  art  and  culture.  The  great  sewer 
{Cloaca  Maxima)  in  Rome  is  a  monument  of  this  early  Etruscan 
influence.  Ruins  of  aqueducts  (3-1)  or  bridges,  in  which  the  arch 
was  employed,  are  scattered  over  all  fonticr  ]»rovincL's  of  tlie  Emx>ire. 
(The  earlier  Greek  aqueducts  were  tunneled  under  ground.) 

There  are  apparently  no  existing  remains  of  arched  constructions 
in  the  Grecianized  Oriental  countries  positively  dating  earlier  than 
the  rtoman  conquests,  aside  from  those  of  the  earlier  Assyrian  and 
Egyptian  time;  but  the  later  destruction  has  been  so  absolutely 
sweeping  in  these  countries,  that  negative  evidence  is  of  no  great 
value.  The  probability  is,  that  the  arch  continued  in  use  in  the 
Oriental  world  down  to  its  Roman  period,  without  intermission,  and 
that  the  arched  and  domed  constructions  of  the  Imperial  period  in 
the  Eastern  provinces  are  simply  direct  continuations  of  this  earlier 
use.    At  least  two  instances  of  ai"ch  construction  are  now  known  ia 


72  PUBLIC     BUILDINGS. 

Q-reece,  dating  from  the  Greek  period  proper.  It  is  clear  that  the 
Greek  use  was  quite  Hmited,  but  rather  from  national  prejudice 
than  from  ignorance  of  the  principles  of  this  construction. 

In  the  Roman  Baths  (33),  both  the  vaulting  or  roofing  arch  and 
the  dome  were  emjjloyed.  The  bath  constructions  in  the  city  of 
Rome  were  of  vast  extent,  comprising  not  only  bathing  accommo- 
dations, but  also  lounging-rooms,  reading-rooms,  libraries,  and  gym- 
nasiums. Works  of  sculpture  were  so  lavishly  used  in  decoration, 
that  the  baths  were  also  veritable  museums  of  art. 

The  Basilicas  were  the  meeting  places  of  the  merchants  and 
men  of  business,  and  here  also  were  the  courts  and  halls  of  justice. 
The  most  noted  remains  of  a  Basilica  in  which  the  roof  was  vaulted, 
is  that  known  as  the  Basilica  of  Constantine,  in  Rome  (3  7).  The 
ruin  has  preserved  only  one  side  aisle  of  the  original  construction. 
In  this  case,  and  quite  generally,  the  vaulting  is  formed  of  concrete, 
which  was  cast  in  a  mold  of  plank  construction.  This  was  removed 
when  the  mass  became  hard  and  solid.  By  this  method,  the  ten- 
dency of  the  arch  to  thrust  the  supporting  walls  outward  was 
avoided.  (There  were  two  vaulted  apartments  in  the  baths  of 
Caracalla,  each  as  large  as  the  central  nave  of  the  Basilica  of  Con- 
stantine.) Another  class  of  Basilicas  was  constructed  with  a  timber 
roof,  and  having  the  upper  walls  of  the  central  nave  supported  by 
colunms.  In  the  ruins  of  the  Basilica  Ulpia  at  Rome,  time  of  Tra- 
jan, second  century  a.d.,  we  can  trace  the  general  plan  of  these 
constructions.  Their  arrangements  were  subsequently  copied  in  one 
class  of  early  Christian  churches,  thus  named  after  them. 

In  the  Amphitheaters  for  the  games  of  the  gladiators,  the  fights 
of  animals,  and  similar  amusements  of  the  populace,  Roman  en- 
gineering skill  is  again  displayed  in  marvelous  ways.  The  Colos- 
seum at  Rome  is  the  most  famous  example  of  this  class  of  con- 
structions. 

The  gladiator  games  were  a  phase  of  the  corruption  of  ancient  civilization  In 
the  Imperial  period,  and  were  unknown  at  Rome  in  the  early  days  of  Roman 
republican  simplicity.  The  Greeks  never  admitted  such  spectacles.  They  were  a 
concession  to  the  coarse  and  cruel  tastes  of  the  populace,  whose  favor  was  essen- 
tial to  the  security  of  the  Emperor's  person. 

Triumphal  Arches  (41)  marked  the  avenues  through  which  the 
triumphal  processions,  in  celebration  of  foreign  conquests,  were 
conducted,  and  served  as  memorials  of  them.     The  triumphal  arches 


38.     The  Maison  Carrce,  Nimes. 
29.     The  Pantheon,  nomc. 


?£ssd 


(     ^Ci  .     c 


40.     PORTAL   or    ROMAN    TEMPLE,    BAALBEC,    SYRIA. 


T?  ()  M  A  X     O  n  X  A  M  K  X  T  A  L     S  Y  S  T  K  M  .  75 

of  the  Emperors  TiUis,  Septiiuius  Severus.  mid  (lonstantine  are  still 
standing  at  Rome. 

The  Ornamental  System. — In  ;ili  the  various  Roman  construc- 
tions so  far  nameil  (excepting  the  timl)er-roofed  Basilicas),  the  arch, 
"arched  ceilings,  or  domes,  and  supporting  piers  or  walls,  are  the 
structural  elements ;  but  their  ornamental  traits  have  still  t(j  be 
considered.  In  some  cases,  the  marble  casing  on  which  these  ornar 
mental  details  were  carved  has  been  destroyed  (for  instance,  in  37), 
but  all  Roman  buildings  affected  the  same  style  of  ornament.  Ex- 
amination will  show  I  hat  these  ornamental  traits  are  Greek,  univer- 
sally, but  that,  in  cases  where  arches  are  used,  the  columns  and 
beam  entablatures  are  not  elements  of  the  construction  itself,  as 
they  are  seen  to  be  in  the  illustrations  of  the  Greek  temples.  This 
purely  ornamental  use  of  Greek  forms,  which  were  originally  purely 
structural,  is  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Roman  style. 

Broken  Lines  of  the  Ornamental  Entablature. — A  peculiar  feature 
frequently  appears  in  tlu;  lines  of  the  ornamental  imitations  of 
the  entablature,  viz.,  the  projections  of  the  entablature  over  the 
columns,  making  a  series  of  breaks  in  its  lines  (41).  In  the  Greek 
structural  use,  the  lines  of  the  entablature  are  necessarily  straight. 
A  curious  exaggeration  of  these  projections  is  found  in  the  part 
of  the  surrounding  wall  of  the  Roman  Forum,  known  as  the  Forum 
of  Nerv^a,  where  the  columns  are  really  a  surface  ornament  rather 
than  supports  of  a  portico,  although  they  are  entirely  freed  from 
the  wall. 

Ornamental  Gables. — Another  phase  of  this  Roman  use  of  Greek 
form  is  found  in  the  ornamental  gables  which  surmount  doors,  win- 
dows, and  niches  (36).  These  are  imitations  in  reduced  size  of  the 
gables  of  the  Greek  temj^les.  There  are  four  varieties  in  the 
ornamental  gable.  -V  curved  form  was  introduced  to  vary  the  mo- 
notony of  the  triangle.*  Both  curve  and  triangle  are  occasionally 
found  with  a  break  at  the  center  above  or  below.  In  the  rock- 
carved  Roman  structures  of  Petra,  in  Southern  Syria,  there  are 
remarkably  fine  illustrations  of  these  various  uses.  Others  may  be 
seen  in  the  Roman  ruins  of  Baalbec,  in  Syria.  The  plain,  triangular 
niche  gable  is  seen  in  the  interior  of  the  temple  at  40,  and 
on   the   Porta   Maggiore,    at   Rome,    the   best    preserved    of   Roman 

•  Seen  at  6  in  a  modem  copy.  M.iny  designs  in  modem  furniture  show  variants  of  these 
omameuts 


76  THE    roma:n"    temples. 

city  gateways  (36).  (Above  it  are  portions  of  an  aqueduct  in  two 
sections.) 

Use  of  the  Ruins  as  Quarries. — It  has  been  observed,  that  brick 
constructions,  like  the  Batlis  of  Caracalla,  were  originally  decorated 
with  marble  casing,  in  which  the  Roman-Greek  ornamental  forms 
were  employed.  These  casings  have  been  torn  off,  and  burned  into 
2ime  for  mortar  in  the  Middle  Ages.  In  fact,  the  destruction  of 
ruins  for  this  purpose,  and  the  use  of  them  as  quarries,  did  not 
cease  in  Rome  till  the  middle  of  the  18th  century.  It  still  con- 
tinues in  the  Oriental  countries,  which  were  once  Roman  prov- 
inces. In  many  Roman  provinces,  for  instance,  in  Britain,  an  almost 
absolute  destruction  of  the  ruins  has  resulted  from  the  habit  of 
using  them  as  quarries.  Thus  we  have  explained  the  singular  fact 
that  the  most  remarkable  series  of  ruined  Roman  cities  is  found  in 
Eastern  Syria,  along  the  edge  of  the  northern  continuation  of  the 
Arabian  desert.  Only  in  this  one  portion  of  the  old  Ron:an  Empire 
has  the  later  population  spared  its  remains.  The  Bedouins,  who 
subsequently  occupied  the  country,  live  in  tents,  and  hence  the  r:ins 
have  been  preserved. 

The  Roman  Temples  of  early  dates  imitated  those  of  the  Etrus- 
cans. No  remains  of  either  are  preserved.  Ancient  descriptions 
show  that  they  had  a  general  resemblance  to  the  Greek  temples, 
without  their  refinement  or  beauty  of  proportions.  The  Roman 
temples  of  the  Imperial  period  (38)  are  Greek  in  details  and  plan. 
Many  of  them,  however,  abandon  the  surrounding  colonnade,  only 
retaining  the  portico  in  front.  The  temple  known  as  the  liaison 
Carrie  (square  house)  at  Nimes,  in  Southern  France,  is  a  well- 
preserved  example.  It  thus  appears  that  the  distinctive  Roman 
ornamental  use  of  the  Greek  columns  did  not  exclude  the  continu- 
ation of  the  Greek  structural  use. 

The  Order  Generally  Employed  in  the  Imperial  period  is  the 
Corinthian.  The  Roman  preference  for  this  order  is  an  illustration 
of  the  origins  of  the  Imperial  civilization,  which  was  essentially  a 
continuation  of  the  Alexandrine  or  Asiatic-Greek  (p.  57).  When  the 
Doric  or  Ionic  forms  are  employed,  the  details  are  relatively  inferior. 
The  so-called  "  Tuscan "  order  is  an  Etruscan  modification  of  the 
Doric  which  continued  in  the  Imperial  period.  The  so-called  "  Com- 
posite" order  has  a  capital  combining  details  of  the  Ionic  and 
Corinthian  forms. 


41.  TRIUMPHAL  ARCH  OF  TRAJAN,  BENEVENTO. 


42.  Ruined  houses  and  colonnades,   Pompeii. 

43.  The  Porta  Nigra,   Trier. 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


79 


The  Domestic  Architecture  (,ontiiiiied  as  in  earlier  antiquity,  and 
in  modern  Oriental   countries,  without  external  ornament  or  arehi- 


Apartment  in  a  Pompeian   House. 

tectural  pretensions.  Dwellings  of  six  and  seven  stories  were  l)uilt 
in  Rome.  Those  preserved  in  Pompeii  have  only  two  stories.  This 
town,  in  the  vicinity  of  Naples,  was  buried  under  a  shower  of  ashes 
from  the  volcano  of  Mt.  Vesuvius  in  79  A.n.  The  various  apart- 
ments of  a  Pompeian  house  are  centered  about  an  open  court,  into 


Plan  of  a   Foiiipeian   House. 

p,  77i<=yestibulum,  or /ic///;  /.  r//«  Ostium  ;  .?,  T/ie  Ainiun,  off  ir/iir/i  are  Mj- ci\hU-»\n.  nr  nhfpinff-rootm  ;  3,  'Hit 
Impluvium,  before  ichlch  stomU  the  pedesfal,  or  nlfar,  of  t/i^  hofehnlil  gods  ;  h.  Tn.  Tabliniini.  or  cJiUf  room  ; 
5,  The  Pinacotheca.  or  lihranj  a nf I  picture  (;tdJ>r>/;  6,  The  Fauces,  or  corridor;  7,  The  Pirisiyliiiin,  or 
court,  with  (4()  itn  central  fountain  ;  0,  The  .Ecus,  or  xiafe-room  ;  lo.  The  Triclinium;  11,  The  kitchti.  : 
IS,  The  traiiKverse  corridor.  %cith  garden  beyond ;  and  IS,  The  Larnrluin,  a  receplacU  for  the  more  favorite 
gods,  and  for  statues  of  illustrious  personagea. 

which  they  open.  The  wealth  and  luxury  were  exhibited  in  the  in- 
terior decoration  and  domestic  furni.shin,f,^  Th.-  Avails  facing  the 
street  are  bare ;   often  even  without  windows. 

The  Pantheon.  — Of  all  Roman  buildings,  the  Pantheon  at  Rome 
claims  precedence  by  its  complete  preservation  (No.  30).  The  in- 
terior is  a  single  domed  apartment,  lighted  by  an   opening   at   the 


80 


ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


center.  The  exterior  is  of  brick,  with  a  stone  portal  in  the  form  of 
a  temple  gable  and  portico.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  use 
of  this  building  as  a  temple  for  the  gods  of  the  conquered  nations 
was  not  the  original  destination,  and  that  it  was  originally  part  of 
the  plan  of  a  bath  construction,  subsequently  separated  during  erec- 
tion from  the  main  building.  This  has  been  recently  disputed  by 
high  authority,  but  it  is  at  least  true  that  the  Pantheon  offers  a 
fine  illustration  of  the  immense  domed  apartments  which  were  one 
feature  of  the  Roman  baths. 


JSrOTES  ON  THE  ILLUSTRATIONS  FOB  ROMAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

(65-80,  inclusive.) 

Kos.  33,  34,  37,  are  chosen 
as  types  of  the  arch  construction 
and  of  arched  vaultings.  Nos. 
86,  39,  40,  41,  43,  show  the  as- 
sociation of  the  arch  or  dome 
with  G-reek  structure  used  for 
decoration.  No.  38  illustrates 
the  continuance  of  the  Greek 
temple  form  under  the  Roman 
Empire. 

The  Theater  of  Marcellus,  in 
text-cut  showing  a  section  of 
construction,  offers  an  excellent 
type  of  the  Roman  combination 
of  the  arch  with  Greek  forms. 
The  entire  building,  begun  by 
Caisar  and  finished  by  Augustus, 
held  thirty  thousand  spectators. 

The  restored  view  of  the  Ro- 
man Forum  shows  several  in- 
stances of  the  continuance  of  the 
Greek  construction  proper. 

At  p.  72  reference  is  made 
to  the  Basilica,  or  Business  Ex- 
change, built  by  the  Emperor 
Trajan,  as  belonging  to  the  class 
of  timber-roofed  Basilicas.  The 
broken  columns  of  this  structure 
are  seen  at  No.  125  (p.  180)  in 
front  of  the  column  erected  by 
the  same  emperor.  The  division 
of  nave   and   aisles,  which  con- 

,    .       ^,         ^,  1,     -r>      -T  Theater  of  Marcellus,   Rome. 

tmued  m  tne  Church   Basilicas, 

as  explained  in  the  next  section,  can  be  seen  in  the  lines  of  the  broken  columns. 


ARCHITECTURE   OF  THE   MIDDLE   AGES. 

BYZANTINE    PERIOD,    A.  D.    300-1000. 

In  the  5th  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the  Western  provinces  of 
the  Koman  Empire  were  overflowed  by  an  armed  migration  of 
German  tribes,  wliich  liad  been  previously  settled  in  Central  and 
Eastern  Europe  beyond  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine.  They  were  a 
simple  agricultural  people,  of  warlike  ferocity  and  unlettered  tastes, 
seeking  new  homes  remote  from  the  pressure  of  a  Mongolian  inva- 
sion from  Asia,  which  was  thrcatcnini'-  tlich-  own  security.  In  the 
preceding  centuries,  contact  with  Roman  traders,  or  service  as  soldiers 
in  Roman  pay,  had  partially  familiarized  the  Germanic  tribes  witli 
the  civilization  into  which  they  now  rudely  entered  as  conquerors 
and  masters.  They  had  already,  in  general,  adopted  the  Christian 
faith  from  Roman  missionaries,  or  became  converts  soon  after  the 
invasion. 

During  the  4th  century,  liie  one  preceding  the  German  inva- 
sions, Christianity  had  escaped  the  persecutions  of  the  first  three 
centuries.  Under  the  Roman  Emperor  Constantine  it  was  protected 
and  fostered  by  the  State.  Under  thc^  Roman  Emperor  Theodosius 
it  became  the  State  religion,  and  pagan  worship  was  forbidden.  Thus 
in  the  5th  century  the  Roman  Church  became  the  connecting  link 
between  the  conquered  provinces  and  their  German  invaders,  the 
power  ruling  both.  For  many  centuries  the  efforts  to  revive  the 
culture  of  Western  Europe,  or  to  protect  that  culture  Avhirli  had 
escaped  the  wreck  of  the  invasions,  were  entirely  the  work  of  the 
clerg}'  and  of  the  Church.  Thus  the  continuation  of  the  Roman 
architecture  under  new  conditions  and  in  now  uses  may  bo  studied 
in  the  early  Christian  churches. 

The  Byzantine  Empire. — In  Eastern  Europe,  and  in  the  countries 
of  Asia  and  Africa  bordering  the  Eastern  ]\Iediterranean,  the  Ro- 
man Empire  continued  without  any  break  of  continuity  or  character, 


82  BYZANTIXE     ARCHITECTURE. 

aside  from  those  most  important  changes,  introduced  by  the  domi- 
nance of  the  Christian  rehgion.  The  new  name  apphed,  in  modern 
historic  usage,  to  this  Eastern  portion  of  the  Empire  sometimes 
obscures  its  identity  and  tlie  continuity  of  its  existence.  The  Em- 
peror Constantino  had  transferred  the  Imperial  residence  from  Rome 
to  Constantinople.  Constantinople  was  the  site  of  an  earlier  Greek 
colony  Byzantium.  Hence  the  use  of  the  term  "  Byzantine  EmjDire," 
as  applied  to  this  Eastern  continuation  of  the  Roman  Empire.  It  is 
also  called  the  "East  Roman  Empire"  and  the  "Greek  Empire." 
The  use  of  this  latter  term  emphasizes  the  fact  that  the  population 
of  the  East  Mediterranean  countries  was  Greek  in  culture  and  lan- 
guage, and  largel}^  Greek  in  blood  after  the  time  of  Alexander's  con- 
quest of  the  Persian  Em^Dire  (p.  3  7). 

Byzantine  Architecture. — The  best,  because  the  most  comprehen- 
sive, term  for  all  early  Christian  architecture  is  the  term  Byzantine. 
This  term  covers  both  the  Christian  churches  of  the  East  Roman 
Empire  and  of  the  Germanic  States,  founded, on  the  ruins  of  the 
Roman  Empire  in  Western  Europe,  because  Western  Europe,  in  its 
backward  condition,  subsequent  to  the  invasions,  was  very  largely 
dependent  on  East  Roman  art  and  influences.  The  name  is,  however, 
a  matter  of  indifference,  provided  a  single  one  is  used  to  comprehend 
the  period,  during  which  the  Churches  of  Western  Europe  and  those 
of  the  Byzantine  Empire  had  the  same  general  forms  and  plan,* 

Basilicas  and  Baptisteries. — There  were  two  types  of  churches  in 
use  during  the  period  in  question,  one  founded  on  the  plan  of  the 
timber-roofed  Roman  Basilica,  or  Business  Exchange,  the  other 
founded  on  the  plan  of  the  large-domed  apartments  of  the  Roman 
Baths  (ISTo.  39).  In  both  cases,  the  names  Basilica  and  Baptistei^y 
{Baptisterium)  were  retained. 

The  Periods  of  Church  Architecture. — The  first  (Bj'zantine)  period 
of  architecture  lasted  in  Western  Europe  about  seven  centuries ; 
from  the  triumph  of  Christianity  under  Constantino  to  about  the 
beginning    of    the    11th    century.      New    methods    of    construction, 

*  Classifications  -wliicli  designate  as  distinct  styles  the  "  Early  Christian "  and  "  Byzantine " 
are  confusing  because  they  are  not  founded  on  facts.  So  too  are  the  classifications  which  intro- 
duce the  term  "Romanesque"  in  the  sense  of  "debased  Roman,"  as  co-extensive  with  "Early 
Christian."  Such  classifications  obscure  the  sense  of  the  word  Romanesque,  which  in  archi- 
tecture implies  simply  a  return  to  certain  Roman  featxires  of  construction,  and  leave  us  without  a 
term  for  the  real  Romanesque  period,  which  lies  between  the  Byzantine  (or  "Early  Christian") 
and  the  Gk)thic. 


44 


BASILICA    OF    SAN    APOLLINARE    NUOVO,    RAVENNA. 


45«    Basilica  of  San  Apollinare  in  Classe,  Ravenna. 


C         c     c 
c  c      t    c 

t  '   I  I    « 


46.     Basilica  of  San  Apollinare  in  Classe,  Ravenna. 


]?YZ  AN'I'I  X  K     ARCHITECTURE.  85 

to  be  subsequently  specified,  were  then  gradually  adopted  for  the 
cathedrals  and  larger  churches  of  the  new  period,  which  is  desig- 
nated as  the  liunianesqiic,  and  which  lasted  till  about  the  close  of 
the  12th  century.  The  style  now  characterized  as  the  Gothic 
then  succeeded,  and  lasted  till  the  close  cf  the  Middle  Ages,  about 
1500  A.D. 

History  of  the  Word  "Basilica." — The  Basilica,  as  Christian 
Church  (33,  34,  35,  3(5),  retained  the  name  and  mainly  retained  the 
plan  of  the  buildings  thus  previously  named  (p.  72).  The  name  dates 
from  a  very  early  event  in  Athenian  history — the  overthrow  of  the 
rule  of  the  king  {Basileus).  His  duties  were  divided  among  a  series 
of  elective  officials  {Archons).  One  of  these  Archons  retained  the 
title  of  Basileus,  and  after  him  was  named  th(^  building  which 
served  for  his  judicial  sessions,  and  which  was  devoted  to  other 
public  uses.  The  use  of  the  term  spread  to  other  Greek  cities, 
and  finally  became  that  of  the  Roman  Empire.  In  the  Christian 
period,  the  term  gained  a  new  meaning,  the  '' Royal  House,"  «*.  c,  the 
dwelling  of  the  King  of  Kings. 

Early  Christian  Churches. — For  obvious  reasons,  there  was  no 
development  of  Christian  ai'cliitccturo  mitil  the  close  of  the  persecu- 
tions at  the  opening  of  the  -Ith  century.  The  earliest  Christian 
Basilica  still  in  use,  is  the  Chui-ch  of  the  Manger  at  Bethlehem 
(early  4th  century).  The  two  great  Roman  Basilicas  of  the  4th 
century,  those  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  have  been  destroyed.  The 
St.  Peter's  Basilica  was  pulled  down  in  the  early  10th  century  to 
make  place  for  the  new  St.  Peter's  Church.  The  St.  Paul's  Basilica 
was  niiiiuly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1828.  It  has  been  rebuilt  on  the 
old  plan.  Some  other  early  Basilicas  in  Ronie  have  been  trans- 
formed by  restorations  in  the  taste  of  later  times,  so  that  they  have 
lost  their  ancient  character  and  effect.  The  most  important  ones 
have  suffered  the  most  in  this  way,  but  there  are  still  several  Roman 
Basilicas  of  the  5th  and  (Uh  centuries  which  are  substantially  intact, 
aside  from  the  loss  of  important  mosaic  decorations. 

The  City  of  Ravenna,  on  the  Adriatic  shore  of  Northern '  Italy, 
has  the  most  remarkaljle  series  of  well-preserved  early  Chi'istian 
buildings  of  the  5th  and  (Ith  centuries.  Ravenna  was  a  place  of 
great  importance  during  the  period  of  the  German  invasions.  Sur- 
rounding swamps  and  lagoons  were  a  protection  against  the  attacks 
of  the  Germanic   invaders,  and   its   position   made   it   an   imnortant 


86  BYZAXTIXE     ARCHITECTURE. 

commercial  port,  and,  consequently,  a  connecting  link  with  the 
East  Roman  countries.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  isolated,  by 
the  same  position,  from  the  march  of  progress  in  later  times,  and 
its  later  poverty  has  been  the  real  protection  of  its  interesting 
monuments.  It  was  not  till  the  19  th  century  that  the  dawn  of 
revived  interest  in  medieval  history  led  to  an  interest  in  the  preser- 
vation of  medieval  buildings  (see  page  16),  and  the  early  ones 
which  have  been  preserved,  owe  this  preservation  to  isolation  or 
to  chance. 

Plan  of  the  Church  Basilicas. — As  studied  in  the  examples  just 
mentioned,  the  early  Christian  Basilica  has  an  oblong  and  rectan- 
gular x^lan  terminating  at  one  end  in  an  apse  or  semicircular  niche 
— the  origin  of  the  Choir.  This  apse  was  the  seat  of  the  magistrate 
in  the  Pagan  Basilica,  and  a  portion  of  the  building  before  it,  railed 
off  by  a  transverse  line  of  columns,  was  the  court  of  justice.  When 
we  remember  that  the  clergy  were  the  main  supporters  of  public 
order  in  the  period  of  the  invasions,  and  the  mediating  power  be- 
tween conquerors  and  conquered,  and  that  the  bishop  was  generally 
the  leading  city  magistrate,  it  will  appear  that  there  was  a  natural 
logic  in  the  arrangement  which  turned  the  apse  of  the  Roman 
magistrate  into  the  choir  of  tne  Christian  bishop  and  the  Christian 
clergy. 

Details  of  Construction. — In  the  early  monuments  this  apse,  or 
choir,  corresponds  in  width  to  the  central  nave.  The  division  of 
the  building  into  nave  and  aisles  (44,  47)  was  also  a  feature  of  the 
Pagan  Basilica,  and  so  becomes  one  important  feature  of  arrange- 
ment in  all  the  later  cathedrals.  This  division  is  connected  with 
the  method  of  roofing  the  building.  The  outer  portions,  the  aisles, 
are  covered  with  a  separate  roofing  considerably  lower  than  that  of 
the  nave.  The  nave  rises  above  the  aisles  by  walls  supported  on 
columns,  and  these  columns  form  the  separation  between  nave 
and  aisles. 

The  Clerestory. — The  method  of  elevating  the  nave  above  the 
aisles,  also  found  in  all  the  important  later  cathedrals,  where  this 
upper  part  of  the  nave  is  called  the  Clerestory,  admits  of  roofing, 
with  more  convenience,  a  wider  space,  and  it  also  admits  of  a 
method  of  lighting  by  upper  windows,  which  has  great  advantages 
of  effect.  Large  apartments  are  most  successfully  lighted  from 
above.      The   eye  thus  enjoys  tne   effects  of   light    illuminating   the 


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j'c'^  J!  f."  ;,"  *  "'c<48.    (thufcii'of  San  Vitale,  Ravenna.     Cross-section  showing  construction. 

49.     Mosque  of  St.  Sophia,  Constantinople. 


BVZAXTTXK      A  I!  C  IT  I  T  E  CT  U  H  E.  89 

building  and  cast  on  the  objects  in  it.  without  l»ring  strained  by 
the  glare  of  direct  horizontal  rays,  li  lias  been  nuted  (page  -±4:) 
that  the  Greek  temples  were  probably  lighted  from  above.  The 
Pantheon  owes  its  wonderful  interior  effect  to  the  same  method  of 
lighting. 

The  Basilica  Roofs  vrere  of  limlttT  (not  vaulted),  an  important 
distinction  as  compared  with  the  important  cathedrals  of  the  Ro- 
manesque and  Gothic  times,  whose  use  of  the  arched  ceilings  of 
brick  or  stone  (vaultings)  led  to  most  of  the  other  distinctions  from 
the  earh^  Basilicas. 

Columnar  Supports  as  Distinguished  from  Piers. — Another  char- 
acteristic is  the  use  of  columns,  as  distinguished  from  piers  or 
pillars,  as  supports  for  the  upper  walls  of  the  nave.  In  Greek  and 
Roman  antiquity,  columns  were  always  composed  of  a  single  block 
of  stone  as  regards  the  diameter.  In  the  perpendicular  line,  the 
larger  columns  were  generally  composed  of  a  series  of  "  drums,"  or 
cylindrical  sections.  Piers  or  pillars,  on  the  other  hand,  are  com- 
posed of  aggregated  masonry.  The}-  may  be  of  cylindrical  shape, 
but  rarely  are.  (Compare  columnar  supports  of  the  Basilica  with 
the  piers  of  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic,  50,  53,  56.) 

The  Combination  of  Column  and  Arch  (as  seen  at  -i-i,  4  7),  by 
which  the  upper  walls  of  the  nave  are  supported,  was  one  devel- 
oped into  a  permanent  system  by  the  Christian  Basilicas.  This 
combination  appears  in  some  few  Pagan  structures,  for  instance, 
the  palace  of  the  Emperor  Diocletian,  at  Spalatro,  in  Dalmatia, 
which  slightly  antedate  the  general  period  of  Church  Basilicas,  but 
is  otherwise  tmknown  in  ancient  architecture.  In  tlie  Greek  con- 
struction, either  of  Greek  periods  or  as  copied  by  the  Romans,  the 
column  invariably  supports  a  straight  beam,  and  in  Roman  use  the 
arch  is  supported  by  a  pier.  In  Roman  ornamental  use  of  Greek 
forms,  the  column  frequently  decorates  the  front  of  the  i)iei-  (see, 
for  instance,  the  Theater  of  Marcellus),  but  it  is  always  connected 
with  a  projected  imitation  of  the  beam  entablature  above,  and  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  structural  support  of  the  arch. 

Development  of  Interior  Perspective  Effects. — The  column  and 
arch  construction,  as  introduced  in  the  Christian  Basilicas,  has  a 
considerable  influence  on  their  perspective  effect,  and  on  the  appear- 
ance of  length  in  the  interior.  The  eye  is  arrested  at  each  succes- 
sive arch  in  its  computation  of  dimension.    The  straight  beam  line 


90  BYZANTIXE     ARCHITECTURE. 

would  be  detrimental  to  the  appearance  of  interior  size,  as  tiie  eye 
is  led  by  it  directly  to  the  extremity  of  the  line.  It  may  be  remem- 
bered that  Greek  temple  interiors  did  not  affect  an  appearance  of 
size.  This  would  have  been  prejudicial  to  the  effect  of  size  in  the 
statue.  The  Greek  temple  was  essentially  only  the  shrine  or  casket 
of  the  temple  statue,  not  a  building  for  a  congregation  of  worshipers. 
In  the  Christian  church,  an  appearance  of  size  is  consonant  with 
the  uses  of  the  building,  and  the  later  cathedrals  owe  much  of  their 
power  to  the  perspective  •  effects  introduced  by  the  sequenx3e  of 
arches,  which  continued  in  the  later  periods,  although  the  columnar 
supports  were  then  replaced  by  piers. 

Some  few  Basilicas  in  Rome  retain  the  straight  beam  line  of  the 
ancient  columnar  style,  an  interesting  illustration  of  the  superior 
power  of  the  ancient  traditional  style  in  this  particular  city. 

The  Interior  Decoration  of  the  Basilicas  was  like  that  of  the 
Baptistery  churches,  and  will  be  noticed  after  these  are  described. 

The  Exterior  Appearance  was  bare  and  undecorative  (45,  46). 
The  walls  are  frequently  ornamented  by  arcades  in  relief  (46). 
Under  roof  lines  and  cornice  lines  is  occasionally  found  an  orna- 
mental frieze  of  small  round  arches  in  relief. 

The  Bell  Tower  [Italian,  Campanile  (cam  pa  nee' la)]  was  a  separate 
structure  (45,  46).  In  all  medieval  periods,  the  Italians  continued 
to  make  a  distinct  structure  of  the  bell  tower  (see  54).  In  the 
architecture  of  the  Northern  Romanesque,  the  tower  became  a  por- 
tion of  the  building,  sometimes  in  double,  sometimes  in  quadruple 
use  (51,  53).  The  spires  of  the  Gothic  (57,  58)  are  a  later  develop- 
ment of  this  use,  continued  in  the  modern  steeple. 

Baptisteries  and  Baptistery  Churches. — It  was  customary  through- 
out the  Middle  Ages,  in  Italy,  to  construct  in  each  city  an  especial 
building  for  use  as  a  Baptistery.  This  custom  began  in  the  By- 
zantine period,  which  also  constructed  churches  proper  on  the 
same  plan. 

The  Dome  Plan. — This  plan,  adopted  from  the  large  domed 
apartments  of  the  Roman  Baths,  and  retaining  the  same  name,  is 
entirely  distinct  from  the  Basilica  plan.  As  opposed  to  the  oblong 
elongated  plan  of  the  Basilica,  that  of  the  Baptisterj'-  (48,  49) 
radiates  from  a  center.  (The  exterior  outline  may  be  octagonal, 
round,  -a  combination  of  circles,  or  of  a  circle  and  half  circles ;  so 
that  the  term  of  "radiating"  plan  is  the   only  one   that  is  compre- 


BYZANTINE    A  KCHITECTU  RE.  9i 

hensive.)  Correspond lug  to  tliis  aspect  of  the  plan,  is  the  use  of  a 
dome,  or  series  of  domes,  for  ceiUng  and  roofing. 

The  Pantheon  (No.  39)  has  been  noted  at  page  80  as  the  one 
building  of  ancient  Roman  times,  in  modern  preservation,  which 
gives  an  idea  of  the  character  of  these  domed  constructions  in  the 
Paga  n  Bap  t  iste  i  'ia. 

The  Word  "Baptistery," — The  retaining  of  this  word  in  Christian 
usage  has  an  interesting  relation  to  the  baptismal  rites  of  the 
Church,  the  Greek  word  from  which  our  word  "  baptism "  is  taken, 
iiieaning  originally  "to  bathe," 

Byzantine  Preference  for  the  Dome, — Churches  of  the  Baptistery 
or  dome  construction,  as  distinct  from  Baptisteries  proper  (for  bap- 
tizing purposes),  ,were  more  numerous  in  the  Byzantine  provinces 
than  in  the  countries  of  Western  Europe,  where  the  Basilica  type 
was  more  generally  affected. 

Existing  Monuments  in  Western  Europe. — In  existing  remains, 
there  are  only  three  important  churches  of  this  type  in  Western 
Europe — San  Vitale  (vee  tah'la)  at  Ravenna  (48),  St.  Mark's  at  Venice, 
and  the  Cathedral  of  Charlemagne  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Mosques  of  Omar  and  of  St.  Sophia. — Among  many  notable 
churches  of  this  type  in  Eastern  Europe,  two  are  specially  famed — 
the  Mosque  of  Omar  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  Mosque  of  St.  Sophia 
at  Constantinople.  The  Mosque  of  Omar  was  originally  a  Christian 
church  of  the  4th  century.  The  Mosque  of  St.  Sophia  was  originally 
a  Christian  church  of  the  Gth  century,  and  was  Imilt  by  the  Emperor 
Justinian.  In  their  use  as  mosques,  these  buildings  date  respectively 
from  the  Arab  ]\rohammedan  conquest  of  Syria  in  the  7th  century 
and  the  Turkish  Mohammedan  conquest  of  Constantinople  in  the 
15th  century. 

The  Interior  Decoration  of  both  Basilicas  and  Bapti.stery  churches 
yras  of  the  most  costly  and  ^'orgeous  character.  Mosaics,  marble 
paneling,  and  elaborate  stucco  ornament,  were  employed.  For  some 
additional  notice  of  the  mosaics,  see  the  "Ili.story  of  Painting." 

Limits  of  the  Byzantine  Period.— Before  pa.ssing  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Romanesque  and  Cfothic  cathedrals  in  Western  Europe, 
it  may  be  oKserved  that  this  develo]iment  is  quite  foreign  to  the 
Byzantine  world.  The  limit  fixed  for  the  Byzantine  period,  i.e.,  about 
1000  A.D.,  has  reference  only  to  We.stern  Europe.  In  the  Byzantine 
provinces,  architecture  continued  to  exhibit  substantially  the  sarr.e 


92  ROMANESQUE     ARCHITECTURE. 

general  character  till  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Byzantine  power  in 
the  15th  century.  The  Turkish  conquerors  made  this  architecture 
their  own  model.  Most  of  the  mosques  of  Constantinople,  for 
instance,  have  been  based  on  the  plan  of  the  St.  Sophia.  Russian 
civilization  owes  its  origin  to  Byzantine  influence,  and  in  Russia, 
also,  Byzantine  architecture  continued  down  to  recent  times.  The 
Church  of  St.  Basil,  at  Moscow,  built  by  Ivan  the  Terrible  in  the 
16th  century,  is  a  notable  example  of  this  fact. 

NOTES    OiV    THE    ILLUSTRATIONS    FOR    THE    BYZANTINE    PERIOD, 

(44-48,  inclusive.) 

Nos.  44  and  47  are  types  of  Basilica  interiors.  Nos.  45  and  46  are  types  of 
Basilica  exteriors.  Nos.  49  and  48  represent,  respectively,  an  exterior  and  interior 
of  the  Baptistery  or  Dome  type.     For  Byzantine  Capitals  see  pp.  110  and  113. 


THE  ROMANESaUE  PERIOD,  A.D.  10001200. 

The  New  Features  of  the  Romanesque  period  (types  at  50,  51, 
52,  53)  are  most  easily  understood  by  reverting  to  the  description 
of  the  Basilica  type,  noting  especially  its  use  of  a  timber  roof  and 
of  columnar  supports  for  the  walls  of  the  nave.  In  distinction  from 
these  characteristics,  the  word  "  Romanesque "  has  been  used  to 
indicate  the  return,  in  the  second  period  of  Church  Architecture,  to 
the  Roman  elements  of  the  pier,  and  the  vaulting  arch. 

The  Pier,  consisting  of  a  mass  of  aggregated  masonry,  thus  dif- 
fers from  the  column  in  its  capacicy  for  indefinite  increase  of  bulk 
and  height.  For  the  "drums"  of  a  column  (see  p.  89),  being  mono- 
lithic in  the  diameter,  can  not  be  quarried  with  facility  beyond  a 
certain  limit. 

Substitution  of  Piers  for  Columns. — Tlio  Basilica  period  had  drawn 
its  supplies  of  columnar  supports  mainly  from  the  porticoes  and 
temple  colonnades  of  the  Pagan  Roman  period.  The  rise  of  the 
new  style,  as  regards  the  use  of  piers,  is  mainly  a  result  of  the 
exhaustion  of  this  supply  of  columns  from  the  ruins.  An  increase 
in  the  average  size  of  the  important  cathedrals,  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  vaulting  (arched  ceiling  of  brick  or  stone),  were  also 
causes  for  the  use  of  piers  in  preference  to  columns.  A  column  is 
too  slender  a  support  for  the  heavy  walls  and  ceiling  of  a  vaulted 
construction.    xVEoreover,  the  period  which,  for  seven  centuries,  had 


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etc 


51.     CATHEDRAL   OF  SPEYER, 


ROitANESQUE     ARCHITECTURE.  95 

drawn  its  supplies  of  columns  frotu  the  ancient  ruins,  had  lost  the 
habit  of  quarrying  columns  of  the  larger  size. 

The  Vaultings. — Thus  the  cxhaustiiui  of  tlic  supply  of  columns, 
the  increase  of  average  dimensions  in  tliu  churches,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  vaulted  ceilings,  are  all  causes  explaining  the  use  of  the 
pier.  The  introduction  of  the  vaulting  (53)  Avas  not  instantaneous. 
It  made  its  appearance  gradually.  It  was  u.sed  at  lirst  in  the  side 
aisles  of  certain  churches.  Then  churches  were  built  in  which  the 
nave  also  was  vaulted.  Finally,  the  method  became  general  for  all 
important  cathedrals.     (Contrast  timber  construction  in  17.) 

Use  of  Vaultings  Explained. — ^The  use  of  vaultings  in  preference 
to  timber  roofs  was  probably  favored  by  various  considerations, 
among  Avhich  the  superior  permanence  and  non-inflammable  char- 
acter were  doubtless  the  first.  As  the  cities  and  religious  com- 
munities of  the  Middle  Age  grew  in  size,  power,  and  wealth,  there 
was  a  constantly  increasing  tendency  to  spare  no  efforts  and  stop 
at  no  expense  which  might  promote  the  splendor  of  the  religious 
edifices.  They  were  shrines  of  the  State,  public  resorts  of  the  popu- 
lace for  p(jlitical  meetings  and  other  purposes,  the  buildings  devoted 
to  the  spectacular  representations  of  the  Passion  Plays,  and  ]\liracle 
Plays,  and  even,  on  occasion,  fortresses  and  treasure  houses.  The 
union  of  roof  and  wall  in  one  continuous  curving  line  gave  the 
buildings  a  unity  and  rhythm  of  effect  which  was  preferred  to  the 
simpler  and  more  rigid  interior  lines  of  the  Basilica  construction. 

Basilica  Features  Retained. — On  tlie  other  hand,  important  ele- 
ments of  the  Basilica  plan  Avere  retained ;  the  division  of  nave  and 
aisles,  the  extra  height  of  the  nave,  the  perspective  effect  of  the 
succession  of  arches,  and  the  choir.  The  choir  began  to  develop  in 
size  in  relation  to  other  parts  of  the  building  (51). 

The  Transept. — The  plan  based  on  the  form  of  the  cross  had 
already  appeared  in  the  Basilica  period,  but  it  now  obtained  wider 
use  and  greater  extension  in  the  individual  cases.  The  form  of  the 
cross,  as  used  in  the  form  of  the  church,  had  imdoul)tedly  a  sym- 
bolical reference,  but  it  served  to  increase  interior  dimensions  and 
exterior  effects  of  picturesque  variety  at  the  same  time.  The  por- 
tion of  the  church  at  right  angles  to  its  main  lines,  and  making 
the  cro.c!S  form,  is  railed  the  transept  (52). 

New  Use  of  the  Dome. — Over  the  junction  of  the  main  building 
and   transept   a   dome   was    constructed.     Such    domes,    during  the 


96  EOMANESQUE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Romanesque  period,  iiad  an  exterior  pointed  roof ;  and  it  is  to 
be  noticed,  also,  that  the  interior  vaultings  were  likewise  covered 
and  protected  by  exterior  gabled  roofings.  Occasionally,  apse? 
or  transepts  (see  62)  were  constructed  at  both  ends  c^  the 
building. 

The  Towers. — The  picturesque  and  massive  effect  of  the  exterior 
was  generally  emphasized  by  heavy  square  towers  with  conical  or 
pointed  roofs.  Sometimes  these  towers,  two  in  number,  formed  a 
portion  of  the  front  (facade)  of  the  cathedral.  Sometimes  four  such 
towers  were  constructed  in  the  angles  formed  by  the  intersection 
of  the  double  transepts  with  the  main  building,  or  otherwise  flank- 
ing the  two  extremities.  These  towers  were  a  development  from 
the  bell  tower,  which,  in  the  Byzantine  period,  was  generally  sepa- 
rate from  the  building  (45,  46).  They  were  used  for  bells  or 
chimes,  but  they  illustrate  the  civic  pride  and  rivalry  of  the  me- 
dieval communities,  and  a  disposition  to  build  up  an  imposing- 
exterior  effect,  which  is  not  generallj'  apparent  in  the  earlier  Chris- 
tian time.  They  also  had  reference  to  the  occasional  use  of  the 
cathedrals  as  fortresses  and  treasure  houses,  which  has  already  been 
noted,  serving  as  watch-towers,  as  places  of  refuge  and  resistance, 
and  for  the  storing  of  valuables. 

Exterior  Ornamental  Traits.  —  These  are  the  least  important 
aspects  of  the  style,  but  they  are  the  aspects  in  which  the  modern 
revivals  of  the  Romanesque  (see  p.  21)  are  most  clearly  apparent. 
In  fact,  they  are  generally  the  only  claim  of  a  modern  building  to 
be  designated  as  Romanesque.  These  ornamental  traits  are — friezes 
of  small  round  arches  under  the  roof  lines,  or  at  the  horizontal 
courses  marking  the  different  stories  of  the  towers,  etc. ;  masonry 
pilasters  i^rojected  from  the  wall,  but  in  the  same  plane  with  the 
cornice  and  plinth  lines ;  and  galleries  of  columns  and  arches  on 
upper  exterior  ijortions  of  the  building  (52). 

The  Round  Arch  Frieze,  or  cornice  decoration,  is  also  found  in 
the  Byzantine  (early  Christian)  period,  but  not  in  such  "laborate 
and  constant  use. 

The  Perpendicular  Masonry  Pilasters  strengthened  the  wall  and 
admitted  an  otherwise  thinner  construction.  They  are  distinguished 
from  Gothic  buttresses  (see  later  matter)  by  the  point  just  noted, 
that  they  do  not  project  beyond  the  plane  of  the  upper  connecting 
horizontal  cornice,  or  the  horizontal  plinth   line   at  the  base  of  the 


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54.  Cathedral  of  Pisa. 

55.  Cathedral  of  Pisa. 


K  O  -M  A  N  E  S  Q  U  E     A  li  C  II 1 T  E  C  T  UK.  99 

wall,*  and  the}'  have  no  capitals  or  bases  in  the  Northern  style. 
These  pilasters  are  found,  also,  in  the  Byzantine  period,  Init  in 
this  period  they  usually  ternunate  in  round  arches,  forming  with 
these  a  series  of  blind  arcades.  In  the  Romanesque  period,  they 
generally  connect  with  an  up[)er  straight  horizouial  band,  or  frieze, 
^  of  small  round  aiilies.  These  flat  pilasters  are  to  bo  distinguished 
from  the  columnar  pilasters,  also  found  as  surface  ornaments  in  the 
same  time  (54).  Flat  pilasters  terminaLing  in  capitals,  and  having 
also  a  base  profile,  are  also  found,  especially  in   Italy. 

The  Galleries  of  Columns  and  Round  Arches  used  on  the  upper 
portions  of  the  exterior  (.")!,  5-i)  show  the  continuation  of  the 
structure  which  was  used  in  the  earlier  Basilica  interiors,  now  con- 
verted to  semi-ornamental  uses.  Of  course,  these  exterior  galleries 
may  also  be  conceived  as  structural  adjuncts  of  the  building. 

Medieval  "Styles"  Determined  by  Construction. — A  descriptive  summary  of  the 
distinctions  between  the  different  medieval  periods  is  of  special  value  in  breaking 
down  the  prejudices  on  the  subject  of  styles  v.hich  have  been  considered  at 
pages  5-28.  Such  summaries  show  that  the  general  changes  in  "style"  were 
changes  in  structure  for  which  definite  reasons  can  generally  be  given  now,  and 
which  always  existed  originally.  Ornamental  traits  may  be  more  profuse  ami 
elaborate  at  one  time  than  at  another,  but  they  generally  reflect,  imitate,  or  assist 
the  stinactural  uses.  From  this  point  of  view,  it  \\  ill  l)e  understood  that  the  words 
"Byzantine,"  "Romanesque,"  "Gothic,"  indicate  certain  broad  distinctions  as  to 
constructions  and  i:)eriods,  and  it  will  also  be  understood  that  there  are  many  local 
or  special  exceptii)ns  to  the  facts  indicated  by  this  use  of  words. 

Vaultings  Used  before  the  Romanesque  Period. — One  of  these  exceptions  relates 
to  the  use  of  arched  vaultings  earlier  than  the  date  fixed  for  the  R(.)manesque. 
Especially  is  this  use  demonstrated  for  certain  early  Chi'istian  constructions  in 
S\Tia  (now  in  ruins,  and  in  districts  which  at  present  are  almost  inaccessible  on 
account  of  banditti.  Bedouins,  or  ^Mohamniednn  prejudice). 

Timber  Roofs  Used  in  the  Romanesque  Period. — ^^Vnother  exception  relates  to  the 
Romanesque  period  itself.  It  has  been  already  implied  that  the  now  methods  of 
construction  (that  is,  new  for  the  Middle  Ages)  indicated  by  the  term  Romanesque, 
hold  f)f  the  larger  and  more  important  cathedrals.  Timber  roofs  were  always  the 
rule  for  humble  churches,  and  tlie  Basilica  construction  and  arrangement  long 
survived,  in  some  localities,  the  date  fixed  for  the  Romanesque.  This  is  especially 
true  in  Italy. 

The  "Italian  Romanesque"  (5-4,  55)  very  generally  continued  to 
prci.'er  the  Basilica  con.struction  of  columns,  arches,  and  timber 
ceilings,  as  opposed   to  i)iers  and  vaultings,  throughout  the  Roman- 

*  A  plinth  is  either  a  block  of  stone  placed  under  the  base  of  a  column,  or  pier,  or  a  line 
of  foundation  masonrj-  projecting  slightly  beyond  the  wall  which  it  supports. 


100  ROMANESQUE     ARCHITECTURE. 

esque  period.  The  reason  was,  at  least  partly,  that  the  supplies  of 
ancient  columns  from  the  Roman  ruins  held  out  longer  in  Italy. 
Thus,  also,  the  "Italian  Romanesque"  frequently  lacks  (on  account 
of  the  absence  of  interior  vaultings,  or  from  a  difference  of  taste) 
the  Aiassive  towers  and  generally  heavy  appearance  of  the  Northern 
Romanesque.  On  the  other  hand,  it  carried  the  decorative  traits  of 
the  Romanesque  to  an  unusual  degree  of  elaboiation  and  profusion. 
Thus,  the  "Italian  Romanesque"  frequently  showed  Basilica  con- 
struction combined  with  Romanesque  decoration. 

•These  Exceptions  assume  their  proper  place  when  the  examination  of  a  number 
of  cathedrals  makes  it  clear  that  the  individual  distinctions  of  one  from  another 
are  even  more  interesting  than  the  points  of  correspondence.  For  purposes  of 
classification,  we  need  systems  and  terms,  but  the  exercise  of  a  free  individual 
taste,  by  the  artisans  and  builders,  in  the  various  parts  of  single  medieval  bmldings, 
was  alone  sufficient  to  constitute  a  never-ending  variety  as  between  different 
buildings. 

Picturesque  Variations  in  corresponding  parts,  both  of  ornament 
and  construction,  are  a  general  rule.  It  is  clear  that  exact  sym- 
metrical regularity  was  often  neglected,  because  it  was  not  conceived 
of  as  necessary- -also  clear  that  symmetrical  regularity  was  frequently 
avoided  by  preference.  It  is  probable  that  the  conscious  study  of 
picturesque  effects  in  architecture  is  apt  to  lead  to  mannerisms  and 
eccentricities ;  but  in  contrast  to  such  ■  conscious  striving  after  the 
picturesque,  the  medieval  builders  had  a  happy  preference  for  variety 
in  ornamental  details,  and  a  thorough  independence  of  the  prejudice 
that  regularity  is  a  necessary  standard  of  taste  in  construction. 

The  So-called  Norman  Style. — The  Romanesque  period  corresponds 
to  that  of  the  so-called  "  Xorman  "  style.  Mr.  Freeman,  the  standard 
English  historian  of  the  "Norman  Conquest"  in  England,  never 
speaks  of  "Nonnan"  architecture,  but  always  of  the  Romanesque. 
The  Normans  conquered  England  in  the  11th  century,  during  which 
the  Romanesque  had  become  general  on  the  Continent  of  Europe, 
and  it  was  they  who  mtroduced  it  into  England.  Hence  many 
English  writers  speak  of  the  "Norman"  style.  There  is,  however, 
nothing  distinctively  Norman  about  it,  and  the  use  of  local  terms  is 
almost  certain  to  create  confusion  as  to  the  broad  and  simple  facts 
controlling  the  history  of  medieval  architecture.  Similar  objections 
apply  to  the  conception  of  a  "  Lombard "  style,  which  is  simply  the 
Romanesque  of  North  Italy. 


GOTHIC     ARCHITECTTXSJ!;  101 

•  ♦•      -.     "   '  •  ;  I*  '.  I   ,\ 

The  Finest  Examples  of  Romanesque*  CafhecfraW  ^iivip^f-'^^s  dis- 
tinct from  the  Italian  variation)  arc,  generally  speaking,  in  German}', 
and  especially  in  the  Rhine  countries.  The  cathedrals  of  Speyer, 
Worms,  and  Mainz  are  especially  celebrated.  The  size  and  grandeur 
of  the  German  cathedrals  of  this  time  indicate  the  power  and  ascend- 
ency of  Germany  in  Europe  in  the  earlier  Middle  Age.  In  the 
later  ^Middle  Age,  France  took  the  place  of  Germany  in  this  respect, 
and  the  subsequent  ascendency  of  the  Gothic  style,  which  developed 
in  France,  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe,  indicates  this  fact. 

NOTES    ON    THE   ILLUSTRATIONS   FOB,   THE   ROMANESQUE    PERIOD. 

(50-55,  inclusive.) 

Nos.  50,  53,  are  types  of  vaulted  lioiuanesque  with  piers.  Contrast  44,  47. 
Nos.  51,  52,  are  types  of  Northern  Romanesque  exteriors.  Contrast  45,  46.  Nos. 
54,  55,  are  types  common  in  Italian  Romanesque,  showing  Basilica  construction 
with  Romanesque  ornament.  For  Romanesque  Capitals  see  pp.  113,  114.  Dis- 
tinguish those  for  columns  and  for  piers.  Columns  frequently  alternate  with  piers 
in  early  Northern  Romanesque,  and  the  capitals  frequently  show  Byzantine  influ- 
ence. But  it  is  impossible  to  understand  Gothic  construction  without  considering 
the  pier  and  vaulting  as  the  essential  Romanesque  elements. 


THE    GOTHIC    PERIOD,    A.D.  1200-1500, 

The  Word  "Gothic"  was  originally  used  by  the  Italians  of  the  earh'  Renais- 
sance (see  p.  15,  and  later  matter),  to  indicate  their  distaste  for  what  they  con- 
sidered the  barbaric  architecture  of  Northern  Medieval  Europe.  In  this  sense,  and 
at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance,  the  word  "Gothic"  was  applied  indiscriminately  to 
all  Northern  medieval  buildings.  This  Italian  taste  and  fashion  carried  with  it  the 
Renaissance  style  (p.  13),  and  replaced  and  overthrew  the  medieval  civilization, 
and  the  medieval  styles  of  architecture. 

First  Use  of  the  Word  Marks  Overthrow  of  the  Style. — Hence,  in  depemlence 
on  this  Italian  taste,  influence,  and  style,  the  Northern  I'^ur  pean  nations,  after  a.d. 
1500,  adopted  this  use  of  the  word  "Gothic,"  as  applied  to  their  own  earlier  archi- 
tecture. The  word  still  had  simply  the  meaning  of  "barbarian,"  ns  we  still  speak 
of  "Goths  and  Vandals."  It  continued  to  have  this  meaning,  and  to  be  applied 
indiscriminate! J-"  to  a'.l  Northern  medieval  buildings  until  the  opening  of  the  19th 
centurj'. 

Modern  Revival  oi  the  Gothic. — A.s  has  been  explained  at  pp.  15,  16,  the  revival 
Di  the  medieval  styles  in  the  19th  century  was  due  to  iiistoric  and  literary  studies 
which  overthrew  the  Italian  Renaissance  ta.ste  and  prejudice  of  the  three  preceding 
centuries.  During  this  movement,  as  the  distinctions  Ix'tween  medieval  periods 
became  apparent,  the  word  "Gothic"  was  gradually  conflned  to  the  litest  medieval 
period  and  style,  which  naturally  required  a  distinctive  name.  The  odious  signifl- 
cation  of  the  earlier  use  of  the  word  has,  of  course,  entirely  disappeared. 


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102  '     '•.•'         .   '-'    :  '^OTJIIC     ARCHITECTURE. 

I       ,  f         '  fill  (  f 

,,','<''  tt  r.  (    , 

Th<i  Ddte  '1200  <AjD.'''wOiikl  be,  in  round  numbers,  a  fair  approxi- 
mate date  for  the  time  when  the  Gothic  had  begun  to  be  generally 
diffused  over  Europe.  The  beginnings  of  the  style  in  France  are  of 
a  somewhat  earlier  time.  The  transitions  by  which  the  new  style 
was  developed  were  gradual  and  tentative ;  but  in  explanation  it  ig 
best  to  speak  of  the  ultimate  result,  without  noticing  the  steps  of 
transition. 

Gothic  Cathedrals  Compared  with  Romanesque. — A  casual  glance 
at  the  illustrations  of  a  Gothic  cathedral  (56,  57,  58,  63)  shows  a 
remarkable  distinction  in  appearance  from  the  Romanesque.  Among 
the  differences  the  use  of  pointed  arches  is  a  prominent  feature. 
As  seen  in  the  doors  and  windows  and  in  the  ornamental  details, 
the  pointed  arches  are  only  a  decorative  outgrowth,  which  began  in 
the  structure  of  the  interior  vaulting. 

The  Pointed  Arch  is  a  frequent  appearance  in  Arab  and  Sara- 
cenic buildings,  and  was  thus  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  medie- 
val builders  during  the  time  of  the  Crusades.  But  they  used  it 
from  a  different  motive.  In  the  Arab  and  Saracenic  buildings  the 
pointed  arch  was  apparently  used  out  of  preference  for  its  light 
appearance  and,  so  to  speak,  airy  character,  which  harmonized  with 
the  frequently  fragile,  or  at  least  highly  ornate,  appearance  and 
sometimes  flimsy  construction  of  their  buildings.  The  earliest  Gothic 
buildings  were  of  a  plain  and  severe  appearance,  and  the  use  of  the 
pointed  arch  was  apparently  only  the  means  to  a  greater  stability 
in  the  vaultings. 

Influence  of  the  Crusades. — The  opening  of  the  era  of  the  Crusades  preceded  by 
just  a  century  the  full  development  of  the  Gothic,  about  1200.  The  Crusades  had 
for  their  purpose  not  only  the  rescue  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  in  Syria,  but  also  the 
pushing  back  of  the  Turkish  invasion,  which  was  threatening  Europe,  and  the  pro- 
tection of  the  East  Roman  (Bj^zantine)  Empire  from  the  Turks.  An  important 
result  of  the  Crusades  was  the  quickening  of  commercial  intercoui'se  with  the 
Byzantine  Empire  and  with  Oriental  countries. 

Rise  of  the  Communes. — The  impulse  to  commerce  reacted  on  the  prosperitj'  and 
activity  of  the  civic  communities  all  over  Europe.  These  had  always  been  rivals 
and  antagonists  of  the  feudal  nobility.  The  same  feudal  nobility  was  also  antago- 
nized by  the  power  of  the  kings,  whose  theoretic  control  of  their  kingdoms  was 
frequently  nullified  by  the  superior  military  and  territorial  power  of  their  own 
barons.  This  nad  been  especially  the  case  in  France,  and  it  is  first  in  France  that 
we  clearly  see  the  alliance,  between  the  ci\'ic  communities  and  the  royal  power. 
The  "cQ,mmunes"  contributed  money  to  support  the  power  and  the  military  force 
of  the  kings.     These  in  their  turn  assisted  the  communes  by  charters  and  by  pro- 


56. 


CHURCH  OF  ST.  OUEN,  ROUEN. 


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GOTHIC     ARCHITECTURE.  105 

tecting  them  from  the  encroachments  of  tlie  feudal  nobles.  The  feudal  system  had 
created  a  number  of  small  States  within  the  State.  The  perpetual  warfare  and 
contentions  of  these  feudal  States  were  a  standing  thi'eat  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
merchant  class.  Hence,  the  alliance  between  kings  and  merchants  which  so  enor- 
mously devolopiMl  the  size  and  prosperity  of  the  medieval  communes. 

The  Communes  and  the  Gothic  Style. — It  is  only  by  understand- 
ing the  enormous  growth  of  the  civic  comniunities  that  the  Gothic 
style  becomes  comprehensible.  In  the  erection  of  cathedrals,  Avhich 
surpassed  in  average  size  those  previously  undertaken,  any  struct- 
ural device  contributing  to  the  stability  of  the  vaultings  was  of 
supreiue  importance. 

Structural  Use  of  the  Pointed  Arch. — The  pressure  of  the  pointed 
arch  is  carried  off  to  the  sides  by  the  nature  of  its  construction. 
The  lines  of  resistance  are  more  directly  placed  as  regards  the  point 
of  greatest  pressure.  This  undoubtedly  explains  the  rapid  introduc- 
tion of  pointed  arch  vaultings. 

Decorative  Use  of  the  Pointed  Arch. — The  use  of  the  pointed 
arch  in  doors,  windows,  and  ornamental  tracery,  is  a  decorative 
imitation  of  a  structural  necessity.  When  the  style  was  once 
introduced,  the  decorative  habit  naturally  spread  to  the  buildings 
which  continued  to  employ  tlio  timber  roofs.  But  these  timber 
roofs  were  almost  unknown  for  large  cathedrals,  outside  of  England. 
A  certain  number  of  the  English  Gothic  cathedrals  have  timber 
ceilings,  but  the  style  of  the  buildings  is  otherwise  derived  from 
the  vaulted  cathedrals  of  the  continent,  and  can  only  be  explained 
through  these. 

The  Lofty  Elevation  of  the  Nave  is  iinother  Gothic  peculiarity 
{66,  »>3).  This  elevation  has  a  tendency  to  dwai-f  the  spectator, 
and  to  increase  by  contra.st  the  effect  of  magnitude  beyond  the 
point  whirh  any  mere  expansion  of  area  could  attain. 

The  Gothic  Pier.* — The  intention  of  this  construction  is  made 
apparent  in  the  treatment  of  the  Gothic  pier  (No.  At)).  This  differs 
from  the  "Romanesque  pier  in  the  character  of  its  ribbings,  which 
are  produced  by  vertical  channels  or  furrows.  The  heavy  shadows 
resulting,  emphasize  the  rising  lino  and  tend  to  exaggerate  the 
already  disproportionate  height.  The  related  ribbings  of  the  Ro- 
manesque pier  are  pilaster-like  additions  to  its  exterior  mass  (58). 

•  A  variety  of  piers  used  in  the  early  Gothic  period  do  not  come  under  the  description  given. 
Various  modifications  of  construction  show  the  development  from,  and  the  connection  with,  the 
Romanes<iue  pier.    The  description  given  applies  to  examples  of  the  fully-develoi)cd  Gothic 


106  GOTHIC     ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Gothic  Windows. — In  this  difference  between  the  Roman- 
esque and  Gotliic  piers  may  be  noticed  a  tendency,  which  marks 
the  Gothic  period,  to  avoid  tlie  use  or  appearance  of  unnecessaiy 
weight  and  matter,  Tlie  farrowed  pier  affords  the  same  amount  of 
resistance  with  less  material,  and  witli  less  appearance  of  weight 
and  mass  of  material.  From  this  characteristic,  another  feature  of 
the  Gothic  cathedrals  becomes  comprehensible,  viz. :  the  enormous 
development  of  the  size  of  the  windows  (57,  60).  In  the  most 
typical  Gothic  cathedrals,  the  entire  wall  surface  is  given  up  to 
windows  (aside  from  the  spaces  corresponding  to  the  exterior  but- 
tresses, to  be  noted  presently). 

The  Use  of  Stained  Glass. — This  extension  of  the  space  devoted 
to  windows  has  been  attributed  to  the  use  of  stained  glass  and  the 
wish  to  increase  the  space  devoted  to  it.  It  may  be  observed  that 
the  use  of  stained  glass  would  have  been  made  necessary  by  the 
amount  of  window  space  in  question  ;  otherwise,  the  interior  light 
would  have  been  too  great.  But,  in  either  point  of  view,  the  same 
disposition  to  avoid  the  use  and  weight  of  masonry  as  far  as  pos- 
sible is  apparent. 

The  Exterior  Buttress.* — If  the  interior  of  the  Gothic  cathedral 
be  observed,  it  appears  that  the  wall  surfaces  are  mainly  devoted 
to  stained  glass  windows,  and  that  the  vaulted  ceiling  exercises  a 
heavy  pressure  which  requires  a  suitable  resistance.  The  vaulting 
is  constructed  in  such  a  way  that  its  pressure  converges  on  the  ribs 
or  frame-work  of  the  vault,  and  these  carry  the  pressure  to  the 
piers.  The  resistance  to  this  pressure  is  furnished  by  the  exterior 
buttresses,  which  correspond  in  position  to  the  piers  within  (63). 
The  buttress,  as  its  name  implies,  is  a  vertical  projection  of  th& 
wall,  which  gives  it  the  necessary  strength  at  the  necessary  points. 

The  Flying  Buttress. — The  buttress  rises  above  the  lower  side 
aisle  of  the  cathedral,  and  is  connected  by  the  "flying  buttress"' 
with  the  upper  walls  of  the  nave. 

The  Pinnacles,  which  surmount  the  buttress,  increase  its  weight 
and  power  of  solid  resistance,  and  also  emphasize,  ornamentall}',  its 
use  and  importance. 

The   Window    Tracery   of  the   Gothic   style  assumes  an  infinite 

*  "A  buttress  is  a  piece  of  wall  set  athwart  the  main  wall,  usually  projecting  considerably 
at  the  base,  and  diminished  by  successive  reductions  of  its  mass  as  it  approaches  the  top,  and  so 
placed  as  to  counteract  the  thrust  of  some  arch  or  vault  inside.' 


58.     CATHEDRAL    OF    RHEIMS. 


-Y^^ 


5g.    Type  of  Gothic  Sculptured  Ornament. 
6i.     Typical  Gothic  Crocket. 


60.    Gothic  Window,  St.  Chapelle,  Paris, 
62.     Typical  Gothic  Finial. 


GOTHIC     A  KCJI  ITECTUKE.  109 

variety  of  geometrical  forms  and  cojiibinations.  These  increase  in 
variety  and  coinpluxity  as  ilio  style  develops  from  the  earlier  and 
simpler  constructions  to  those  which  arc  more  elaborate  and  more 
profuselv  oriianu-ntcd. 

The  Surface  Tracery. — Tu  this  gradual  development  of  a  more 
ornamented  style  from  the  heavier  and  simi)ler  construction  of  the 
early  Gothic,  the  surfaces  of  the  Imttresses  and  of  the  walls  are 
gradually  relieved  and  lightened  in  effect  by  an  expansion  of  the 
plans  of  the  window  tracery  over  the  solid  surfaces  (58).  AVith  this 
use  is  combined  the  development  of  sculpture  decoration — in  the 
portals,  and  also  on  the  wall  surfaces,  especially  of  the  facades.* 

Significance  of  Gothic  Sculpture  and  Tracery. — In  this  use  of 
tracery  and  sculpture(l  decoration  on  the  wall  sui-faces,  may  be 
observed  a  tendency  to  idealize  and  spiritualize  the  dead  matter  of 
which  they  are  compo.sed — a  tendenc}'  analogous  to  that  which 
avoids  as  far  as  possible  the  appearance  or  use  of  unnecessary 
material. 

Divisions  of  the  English  Gothic. — Special  works  devoted  to  the 
English  Gothic  have  created  a  series  of  subdivisions — "Early  En- 
glish," "Decorated,"  and  "Perpendicular,"  which  have  no  distinct 
boundaries,  and  which  are,  in  reality,  only  the  English  local  phases 
of  the  general  tendency  of  the  Gothic  style  to  develop  from  simpler 
ornamental  forms  to  those  Avhicli  are  more  elaborate. 

Fine  Examples  of  Gothic  Cathedrals  arc  numerous  in  every 
European  country.  IMany  of  the  best  examples  are  in  France. 
Among  the  most  rpioted,  are  those  of  Paris,  (?hartres,  Amiens, 
Rheims,  and  Rouen.  In  other  European  countries,  the  cathedrals  of 
Canterbury  in  England,  of  Cologne  in  Germany,  of  Burgos  in  Spain, 
and  of  ]^[ilan   in   Italy,  are  especially  renowned. 

The  Italian  Gothic  offers  peculiai-  exceptions  to  the  above  descrip- 
tion of  Gothic  traits,  and  corresponds  to  the  Italian  Romanesque  in 
its  eccentric  position  as  far  as  classifications  are  concerned.  Vault- 
ings were  not  generally  introduced  into  Italy  until  toward  the  cIo.se 
of  the  Romanesque  period  elsewhere,  and  the  Italians  continued, 
through  the  Gothic  jx-riod,  to  adhere  to  the  low  proportions  and 
solid  walls  of  the  Romanesque  i)eriod.  often  using  an  elaborate  sur- 
face decoration,  or  casing,  in  black  and  white  marble  (p.   11 B). 

•  The  facade  (/atsdhd)  is  the  cxtiTii.r  frunt  of  a  building. 


110 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


The  Examples  of  the  "  Itahan  Gothic  "  are  of  astounding  variety 
and  individual  independence.  They  are  only  alike  in  rejecting  the 
traits  which  distinguish  the  Northern  Gothic.  The  following  points 
of  negative  similarity  may  be  observed.  The  windows  are  small ; 
the  buttresses  are  generally  wanting,  or  merely  rudimentary  remi- 
niscences of  Northern  influence  ;  the  interior  proportions  have  not 
the  Gothic  exaggeration  of  height.  Even  the  pointed  arches  are 
sometimes  absent.  The  exterior  decoration  above  noticed,  of  casing 
in  black  and  white  marbles,  was  arranged  in  segment  patterns  or 
in  horizontal  stripes  quite  incompatible  with  the  accented  rising 
lines  of  the  Northern  Gothic. 

Important  Italian  Cathedrals  (p.  116).— The  Catriedrals  of  Flot- 
ence,  Siena,  and  Orvieto,  illustrate  the  individual  divergence  of 
Italian  Gothic  cathedrals,  one  from  the  other,  as  well  as  the  absence 
of  Gothic  traits.  The  Cathedral  of  Milan  is  a  nearer  approach  to 
the  Northern  examples,  but  also  shows  marked  divergences  from 
the  Northern  Gothic  type. 


NOTES    ON    THE    ILLUSTRATIONS    FOB    THE    GOTHIC    PERIOD    AND    FOR 

MEDIEVAL    ARCHITECTTTRE. 

(Nos.  56-65,  inclusive.) 

Byzantine  Period.  —  Compare  44 
with  53  foi'  the  BasiUca  column  as 
contrasted  with  the  Romanesque  pier, 
remembering  that  the  pier  does  not 
immediately  or  entirely  replace  the 
column  in  the  Romanesque  period, 
but  that  it  does  ultimately,  and  gen- 
erally (outside  of  Italy).  Compare  44 
with  55  for  the  general  continuance 
of  the  Basihca  column  in  Italy  dur- 
ing the  Romanesque  period. 

Compare  47  with  53  for  distinc- 
tion between  timber  roof  and  ceiling 
of  the  Basilica  and  the  round  arch 
vaulted  ceiling  of  the  Romanesque ; 
remembering  that  timber  ceilings  con- 
tinued during  the  Romanesque  period, 
but  were  rarely  used  for  important 
cathedrals  outside  of  Italy. 

Compare  47  and  48  for  distinction 
between  the  plans  and  arrangement  of 
a  Basilica  and  a  Baptistery. 

Byzantine  Capital,  Ravenna.    6th  Century,  Compare  45,   46,   wlth    51,    52,   for 


n 

» 

3* 


> 

3 


O 


3" 
C 
1 
o 

3" 

O 

3* 
O 


5* 
? 

9 
3" 

n 


°  V'  .   ;    '-   •       '55..  CJiURCH   OF  SANTA  CROCE,   FLORENCE. 


G  U  1'  11 1 C    A  K  C II 1 T  E  C  T  V  H  E . 


113 


contrast  in  exterior  appearance  of  a  Basilica 
and  a  Romanesque  Cathedral. 

Note  the  text-cuts  illustrating  types  of 
Byzantine  capitals. 

Romanesque  Period. — Compare  50,  53,  with 
56  for  distinction  between  liomanesque  and 
Gothic  vaulting. 

Compare  50,  53,  with  56  for  distinction 
between  Romanesque  and  Gothic  piers. 

Compare  51,  52,  with  57,  58,  for  contrast 
of  Romanesque  and  Gothic  exteriors. 

Compare  52,  5-4,  with  60-63,  for  contrast 
of  ornamental  details. 

Compare  55  with  50.  53,  for  contrast  of 
Italian  and  Korthern  Romanesque  interiors. 

Compare  54  with  52,  for  contrast  of  Italian 
Hnd  Northern  Romanesque  exterioi^s. 


Byzantine  Capital,  Ravenna,  6th  Century. 


kurnanesque  Capitals,   Limburg. 

Compare  46  and  52,  for  the  Romanesque  development  of  the  transept. 
Note  the  text-cuts  illustrating  types  of  Romanesque  capitals.     Such  capitals  as 
those  from   Limburg  (Germany)  are  developments  from  earher  Byzantine   forms. 


Type  of  Romanesque  Cube 
Capital. 


Romanesque   Pier  Capital, 
Cernrode. 


Romanesque   Pier  Capital, 
Hacklingen. 


114 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


Contrast  the   capitals  for  piers   (Gernrode,    Hacklingen,   iu   Germany,  and  North, 
ampton). 


Romanesque  Pier  Capitals,   Northampton. 

Gothic  Period. — Note  the  development   of  the   Gothic  tower  over  the  unioa  oi 
transept  and  nave  (57)  from  the 

dome  at  corresponding   points  J,- — — -r^iT '^^''Mi 

in  52  or  51.  This  dome  in  the 
north  is  always  covered  orig- 
inally by  a  pointed  roof.  The 
dome  roofs  of  51,  with  convex 
lines,  belong  to  the  18th  cent- 
ury. 

Compare  the  Gothic  choir 
in  57  with  the  Romanesque 
choir  (51)  and  the  Basilica 
choir  (46). 

No.  63  is  a  highly  impor- 
tant illustration  for  the  scheme 
or  skeleton  of  a  Gothic  vaulted 
construction  and  the  connection 
between  the  exterior  buttress 
and  "flying  buttress"  and  the 
interior  arched  ceiling.  Ob- 
serve, as  illustrated  by  the  side 
aisle,  how  the  vaulting  is  al- 
ways protected  by  a  timber 
roof.  In  this  view  the  ribs  of 
the  vaulted  ceiling  are  appar- 
ent. The  vaulting  between  the 
ribs  is  so  arched  as  to  bring 
the  pressure  upon  them.    These  •'**" MtlliUI 

.,  J.      J.1  •  Typical  Gothic  Capital,  Esslinffen. 

carry  the  pressure  to  the  pier,  ^*^  ^      '  ^ 

and  this  is  held   up  by  the   outside   buttress.     Notice    here  and  in  other  Gothic 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


115 


cathedrals  the  origin  of  the  system  of  nave  and  aisles,  and  of  the  higher  elevation 
of  the  nave,  as  shown  in  44,  45,  46. 

For  details  of  Gothic  ornament  in  windows, 
gables,  tinials,  crockets,  and  carved  borders, 
see  Nos.  59-02. 

No.  64  illustrates  the  frequent  mixtures  of 
styles  which  are  formed  in  buildings  of  the 
transition  periods,  and  in  cases  where  an  older 
building  has  been  subsequently  restored  and 
reconstructed.  The  illustrations  have  been  other- 
wise confined  to  central  types  in  order  to  avoid 
confusion  as  to  the  principles  and  sequence  of 
construction.  In  actual  fact  the  instances  of 
transition  and  mixture  are  quite  as  frequent 
as  cases  corresponding  to  the  illustrations  of- 
fered and  no  less  beautiful.  In  64  we  see  the 
Gothic  buttress  construction  connected  with  the 
Homanesque  round  arch  and  Romanesque  ar- 
cades— a  building  of  the  transition  period. 

No,  65  illustrates  the  occasional  or  frequent  use  of  timber  ceilings  during  the 
Gothic  period,  even  for  large  churches ;  but  this  use  as  regards  Cathedral  churches 
was  confined  to  England. 

The  Florence  Cathedral,  text-cut,  p.  IIG, 
illustrates  the  rudimentary  buttress,  small 
windows,  and  paneled  ornamentation,  gen- 
erally characreristic  of  the  Italian  Gothic. 
Contrast  witli  ~->7. 


Typical  Gothic  Capital,   Cologne. 


Typical   Gothic  Capital,   Rheims. 


Typical  Gothic  Finial,  Troyes. 


116 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTUKE, 


Compare  types  of  Gothic  capitals  in  text-cuts  with  Eomanesque  and  Byzantine 
types.  All  similar  ornament  based  on  natural  forms  (see  also  59-62)  was  aban- 
doned  by  the  Renaissance,  to  be  next  considered,  which  returned  to  the  use  of  the 
classic  details,  as  illustrated  at  pp.  60-64. 


The  Cathedral  of  Florence. 


PERIOD  OF  THE   RENAISSANCE. 

A.D.    1450  19TH    CENTURY. 

The  Absence  of  Gothic  Tiaits  in  the  so-called  Italian  Gothic  (p.  109)  shows 
a  growing  national  di  .-ergen.ce  in  Italy  from  the  styles  and  influences  of  Northern 
medieval  civilization.  Italy  was  about  to  experience  a  resurrection  of  her  ancient 
past  as  far  as  the  enthusiasms  and  studies  of  her  people  could  make  this  possible. 
The  feudal  system  of  teiritorial  baronial  independence  had  never  taken  deep  root 
in  this  country.  The  civic  communities  had  absorbed  these  feudal  territorial  rights 
and  powers  at  an  early  day.  Italy  was  thus  divided  in  the  later  Middle  Age  into 
a  series  of  civic  republics,  or  of  States  headed  by  important  cities,  in  which  the 
rulers,  however  apparentlj-  despotic,  represented  the  interests  and  advantage  of 
the  commercial  class.  In  these  States,  nearly  connected  as  they  had  been  with  the 
more  ancient  civilization  of  the  Byzantine  Ivapire  (conquered  by  the  Turks,  1453), 
modern  civilization  took  its  rise. 

Influence  of  Antiquity. — During  the  loth  century,  patriotism  led  the  Italians  to 
cultivate  with  futhusiasni  the  language  and  litei'ature  of  their  ancient  past.  The 
remains  of  ancient  art  began  likewise,  and  in  no  less  degree,  to  attract  attention. 
Excavations  of  buried  ancient  statues  were  not  undertaken  till,  the  16th  century, 
but  the  ornamental  forms  of  ancient  Roman  ruins  were  alreadj-  copied  by  archi- 
tectural students  in  tlii'  middle  of  the  15th  century. 

This  Italian  "Renaissance"  (rebirth),  also  known  as  the  time  of  the  "  Revival 
of  Letters,"  was  contemporaneous  with  the  great  maritime  discoveries  and  first 
colonial  settlements  in  America  and  India,  with  the  invention  and  use  of  printing, 
with  the  general  application  of  gunpowder  to  artillery  and  fire-arms,  and  the 
related  rise  of  the  modern  military  system.  It  was  also  contemporaneous  with  the 
development  in  Northern  Europe  of  the  modern  nati(^nal  States,  which  were 
welded  together  by  the  power  of  the  kings  from  the  chaotic  territorial  elements 
of  the  feudal  period. 

The  Style  of  the  Renaissance  in  architecture  (67,  68,  5,  6)  is 
easily  comprehended  by  noting  the  peculiarities  of  the  Koman  archi- 
tecture, which  It  revived  and  copied  (pp.  65,  80,  and  related  illus- 
trations), and  by  observing  that  the  decorative  forms  of  the  Romans 
were  copied  from  the  Greeks.  As  has  been  explained  in  related 
sections,  the  Roman  ornament  was  Greek  structure. 

Details  of  the  Style. — The  engaged  classic  columns  (p.  75),  sur- 
face imitations  of  the  Greek  entablature  (p.  75),  and  the  various 
forms  of  the  decorative  gable  (p.  75),  applied  by  the  Romans  over 


118  RENAISSANCE     ARCHITECTURE. 

doors,  niches,  etc.,  and  derived  by  them  from  the  gable  of  the 
Greek  temple,  are  the  still  familiar  traits  of  the  Renaissance  style. 
This  style  still  continues  in  modern  use,  not  as  a  revival,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Greek  temples  and  Gothic  cathedrals,  but  as  a  direct 
continuation  of  the  Italian  style. 

19th  Century  Renaissance. — An  account  of  the  19th  century 
Renaissance,  and  of  the  late  revivals  and  movements  in  opposition 
to  it,  has  been  given  at  pp.  6-13. 

The  Corinthian  Greek  Forms  are  those  commonly  used,  although 
the  Tuscan  Doric  (p.  76)  and  the  debased  Roman  Ionic  are  also 
found.  The  prevalence  of  Corinthian  Greek  forms  during  the  Ro- 
man Imperial  period  has  been  explained  (pp.  58,  76).  This  accounts 
for  their  prevalent  use  in  the  modern  Renaissance. 

Absence  of  Structural  Characteristics. — The  Italian  Renaissance 
style  has  no  distinctive  structural  characteristics.  It  is  purely  a 
style  of  ornament,  not  a  style  of  construction. 

St.  Peter's  at  Rome  (No.  6Q)  is  the  largest  and  most  elaborate 
example  of  the  style.  Its  date  (begun  in  150  6)  indicates  the  time 
at  which  the  style  had  become  general  throughout  Italy,  There 
are,  however,  many  examples  of  the  Renaissance  which  have  more 
vigorous  and  more  spirited  ornamental  details.  The  building  was 
not  completed  till  the  17  th  century,  when  the  ornamental  style  had 
already  stiffened  into  conventional  forms.  The  engineering  talent 
displaj^ed  in  the  construction  of  the  famous  dome  is  worthy  of  all 
admiration.  The  name  of  Michael  Angelo  is  connected  with  this 
achievement,  although  he  did  not  live  to  see  it  completed. 

The  Rapid  Diffusion  of  the  Renaissance  Style  over  the  rest  of 
Europe,  during  and  after  the  first  quarter  of  the  16th  century,  is  a 
notable  illustration  of  the  equally  rapid  spread  of  all  other  Italian 
tastes  and  fashions  at  the  same  time.  The  overthrow  of  the  Gothic 
by  the  Renaissance  was  rapid  and  complete,  but  the  change  of 
architectural  styles  was  only  one  phase  of  a  sweeping  revolution  in 
European  civilization. 

The  Elizabethan  period  of  English  literature,  in  the  later  16th 
century,  the  literature  of  France,  as  represented  by  Corneille,  Racine, 
and  Moliere,  in  the  17th  century,  are  derivatives  of  this  same 
Italian  movement.  The  culture  of  Milton,  of  Addison,  and  of 
Samuel  Johnson  has  the  same  common  origin.  Not  till  the  times 
of  Winckelmann   (p.   14)   and  the  revival  of  Greek  studies  in  the 


->k,-v^-li,^Pg!.ii'  ti^  l'<ej?j^:gaara    . 


I    C     C  ( 


67.     COURT   OF   THE    FARNESE   PALACE,    ROME. 


KEXAISSAXCE     A  K  C  II  I  T  P:  CT  U  R  E  .  121 

later  I8th  century,  did  Europe  experience  ii  new  artistic  and  literary 
unpulse. 

Important  Buildings  of  the  Renaissance  Style  in  Northern 
Europe. — Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Louvre  in  Paris  (iOth 
century)  ;  tlie  Palace  of  the  Escurial  near  Madrid,  in  Spain  (16th 
century);  the  Castle  Facades  at  Heidelberg,  in  Germany  (IGth  cent- 
ury) ;  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  and  Temple  Bar  (text-cut  p.  126) ; 
the  Palace  of  Versailles  near  Paris  (i7th  century);  and  the  Palace 
of  Frederick  the  Great  at  Potsdam,  near  Berlin  (18th  century).  As 
the  style  became  rapidly  universal,  it  is  apparent  that  individual 
mention  Avould  bo  almost  without  limits. 

The  "  Elizabethan "  and  "Queen  Anne"  styles,  so-called,  are  simply  phases  of 
the  English  Renaissance  and  not  distinct  styles.  As  has  been  explained  at  p.  22, 
many  buildings  vl  the  time  of  Queen  Anne,  as  at  all  other  times,  were  of  an 
unpretentious  character  and  not  distinguished  by  ornament.  Such  buildings  have 
sometimes  served  as  models  for  the  so-called  "Queen  Anne"  of  our  own  times, 
which  is  essentially  an  effoi't  toward  modern  independence.  In  the  historic  Queen 
Anne  buildings,  the  ornamental  details  are  Renaissance,  if  there  are  any.  Such 
ornamental  details,  when  found,  are  generally  confined  to  the  Renais-sance  gable- 
shaped  ornaments.    (See  No.  11,  \>.  24.) 

The  Renaissance  Decadence. — An  important  point  in  the  his- 
tory  of  the  Kenaissance  stj'le  is  the  distinction  between  the  early 
examples,  whether  in  Italy  or  in  northern  countries,  and  those  of 
the  time  of  decadence.  This  decadence  began  to  show  itself  soon 
after  the  first  quarter  of  the  16th  century,  and  developed  in  a  de- 
gree corresponding  generally  to  the  order  of  time.  Generally  speak- 
ing, Renaissance  buildings  of  the  19th  centur}^  are  inferior  to  those 
of  the  18th  century;  the  18th  century  examples  are  generally 
inferior  to  those  of  the  1  7tli  century,  and  so  on.  The  early  Renais- 
sance vras  distinguished  by  remarkably  vigorous  and  spirited  oi-na- 
mental  details,  borroAved  in  general  outlines  from  the  Antique,  but 
developed  with  independence  and  individuality. 

Traits  of  the  Decadence. — The  early  decline  of  the  style  is  marked 
by  cold,  formal,  and  conventional  ornamentations,  which  are  exter- 
nal imitations  of  the  Antique  patterns,  lacking  their  vigorous  beauty; 
by  a  tendency  to  arbitrary'  and  broken  lines  in  construction,  and  l)y 
the  increase  of  projections  and  broken  surfaces.  The  later  Renai.^ 
sance  decadence  of  our  own  century  shows  finally  a  diminution  of 
dimensions   as  regards   the   relation   of   parts  to   the  whole   and   an 


122 


RENAISSANCE     ARCHITECTURE. 


overloading    of    details,    i.e.,    a    Aveakness    of    composition,    scarcely 
found  in  the  most  "  Rococco  "  Italian  examples.*    Comparison  of  the 
Church  of  St.  John  Lateran  at  Rome  (68)  with  countless  examples 
of   19  th   century  Renaissance,   will  illustrate  the  difference  in  pro- 
portions just  indicated.    The  rapid  deterioration  of  the  early  Italian 
Renaissance  is  connected  with  the  elemental  criticism  to  which  the 
Roman-Greek  ornamental  style  is  open,  viz. :   that  it  has  no  struct- 
ural significance.     Wherever 
ornamental   forms   grow  -  out 
of   structure   or    relate  to  it, 
decided     and     characteristic 
effects  and  bold    proportions 
are    a    necessary    result.     In 
the  Roman  period,  these  were,, 
however,  rarely  lacking,  not- 
withstanding the  absence  of 
a    necessary    connection    be- 
tween structural    forms   and 
ornament.      The    Arch    of 
Titus,  shown  in  the  text-cut, 
may  serve  to  mark  this  fact, 
as  well  as  to  illustrate  once 
more  the  ornamental  system 
which    the    Italians    revived 
from  the  Roman  ruins.    The 
origmal  use  of  the  Greek  forms  is  shown 
by  contrast  at  pp.  •45-64, 
The   Increase  of  Projections   and  Broken    Surfaces  which   char- 
acterizes  the   Renaissance   decadence   is   connected   with   this   fact, 
that    the    Greco-Roman    or    Renaissance    ornamental    style    has    no 
structural  character.    It  was  only  a  question  of  individual  taste  how 
much  projection  should  be  given  to  the  engaged  columns,  entabla- 
tures,   and    gables,    and    how    many    repetitions    of    breaks    in    the 
entablature  should  be  introduced.    The  decline  of  taste  carried  with 
it  an  ever-increasing  excess  in  this  direction. 

These   Various   Traits   of  the   Renaissance   decadence  are  all  re- 


TUE    aBCU    OF    TITUS. 


*  "Rococco"  is  an  adjective  applied  to  the  IStli  century  Renaissance  decadence.  There  ia 
uo  distinct  "  Rococco  "  style.  The  word  simply  indicates  the  excessively  arbitrary  and  broken 
outlines  of  this  period  of  the  Renaissance  style.    See,  for  example,  the  Dresden  "Zwinger  " 


ea.     CHURCH    OF    ST.   JOHN.    LATERAN,    ROME. 


69.     WINDOW   OF   THE    PITTl   PALACE,   FLORENCE. 


RENAISSANCE     A  K  (' !M  T  K  ("  T  I' I{  K.  l25 

lated  to  pfciicral  liistoric  causes,  ami  to  tlie  decline  of  taste  in 
Italy,  which  iiiiinediately  followed  the  greatest  period  of  Italian 
painting  and  sculpture  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  16th  century. 
This  was  owing  to  social  revt)Iutions  in  Italy,  and  to  the  overthrow 
by  foreign  European  nations  of  the  independence  of  the  Italian 
Civic  States  and  Republics,  and  the  establishment  of  foreign  ascend- 
encies and  dynasties  over  most  of  them.  This  political  revolution 
is,  on  the  other  hand,  an  indication  of  tlu'  perfection  of  the  Italian 
civilization  which  preceded  tliis  subjugation,  as  showing  that  fon^ign 
countries  wished  to  possess  themselves  of  the  wealth  and  resources 
of  Italy.  The  general  spread  of  Italian  taste  and  culture  over 
Xorthern  Europe,  Avhich  was  a  uatm-al  result,  was  naturally  attended 
by  deterioration  of  its  original  force  and  quality. 

Principle  for  Comparative  Study. — As  regards  the  difference  be- 
tween late  and  early  lienaissance  ornamental  patterns  and  details, 
illustrative  comparisons  may  be  based  in  personal  study  on  the 
comparison  of  dates,  and  the  general  rule  that  designs  after  1530 
are  inferior  to  those  A\'hich  are  earlier. 


The  Influence  of  the  Renaissance  Style  on  Furniture  ami  the  late  effort  to 
overthrow  this  intiuencc  have  special  interest  for  students  of  decorative  art.  Down 
to  1870,  the  furniture  designs  of  Europe,  and  hence  of  America,- had  been  based  on 
Renaissance  patterns  for  over  three  centuries,  with  slight  breaks  during  the  Greek 
and  Gothic  revivals.  Examples  to  be  studied  in  most  modern  houses,  show  deriva- 
tions from  the  ornamental  gables,  which  are  still  familiar  to  all  of  us.  The  dete- 
rioration of  design  induced  by  the  use  of  machinery  for  carved  patterns,  and  by 
tlie  consequent  decline  of  the  art  of  wood-carxnng,  had  brought  these  motives* 
to  the  lowest  depth  of  debasement  in  the  years  just  preceding  the  "Eastlake" 
and  "Queen  Anne"  revivals. 

The  Rise  of  the  "Eastlake"  Style  was  due  simply  to  the  large  sale  of  ^tr. 
Charles  Eastlake's  book  on  "Household  Taste,"  a  highlj'  valuable  and  commend- 
able work.  Mr.  Eastlake  had  supplied  some  original  designs  in  this  work  to  show 
that  economy  in  furnishing  was  compatible  with  good  taste.  The  exlremt'ly  sim- 
ple forms  used  to  emphasize  this  point  became  the  rage,  and  were  copied  by  the 
furniture  trade  in  general.  They  were  frequently  misunderstood  as  a  fnak  of 
fashion,  and  were  often  caricatured,  in  consequence,  by  the  supposed  copies. 

The  So-called  "Queen  Anne"  Style  in  furniture  may  be  considered,  as  in 
architecture  (p.  22),  simjily  as  an  tlfort  to  be  .structural  and  straightforward  in 
design,  but  this  effort  has  disguised  itself  under  the  name  of  a  style  because  the 
public  is  in  the  habit  of  a.sking  for  one. 

Explanation  of  the  Reaction  toward  Straight  Lines. — Both  "Ea.stlake"  and 
"  Queen  Anne "  may  be  summarized  as  efforts  to  design   furniture   simply,  conse- 

•  A  "  motive  "  is  the  fundamental  or  elementary  scheme  of  a  pattern,  its  basis,  or  typical  idea. 


■126 


EENAISSANCE     ARCHITECTURE. 


quently  in  straight  lines  and  in  dependence  on  the  frame-work  and  skeleton  of  the 
natural  construction.  They  are,  moreover,  reactions  against  the  wild  extravagance 
of  arbitrary  lines  which  has  characterized  the  C3ath  agonies  of  the  Renaissance 
style.  The  deterioration  in  workmanship  and  solidity  which  went  hand  in  hand 
with  the  decline  of  ornamental  design,  is  also  an  element  explaining  the  severe 
outlines  of  the  new  taste  in  fiu-niture,  because  the  expense  of  good  workmanship 
was  such  as  to  preclude  any  great  amount  of  decoration. 

These  explanations  may  serve  to  vindicate  the  good  sense  of  the  original 
"Eastlake"  and  "Queen  Anne"  designs,  but  also  to  show  that  a  more  elaborate 
ornamental  style  is  compatible  with  good  taste,  provided  wood-carvers  and  hand- 
workers are  not  fettered  by  the  competition  with  machinery,  and  by  formulas  of 
the  fossilized  Italian  style.  On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  most  beautiful  deco- 
rative work  of  the  late  art  revival  has  been  inspired  by  the  ornament  of  the 
early  Renaissance. 


\ 


NOTES   ON   THE   ILLUSTRATIONS.     (66-69,  inclusive.) 

Compare  66-69,  inclusive,  with  5  and  6  of  the  same  style.  All  of  these  relate 
to  33-43,  inclusive,  for  method  of  using  the  ornament,  and  to  22-32,  inclusive,  for 
the  forms  of  the  ornament.  The  architectural  details  at  pp.  60-64  are  espe- 
cially in  point,  if  it  be  understood  that  the  distinctive  Roman  and  Italian  use  is 
to  divorce  them  from  the  original  structural  relation  and  significance.  The  fagade 
of  St.  John  Lateran  dates  from  the  18th  century,  although  it  is  characteristic,  as 
regards  composition,  for  the  virtues  of  an  earlier  time.  Temple  Bar  was  taken 
down  some  years  since  as  an  impediment  to  traffic.  It  dates  from  the  17th  cent- 
ury. The  window  of  the  Pitti  Palace  has  been  chosen  as  type  of  the  Renaissance 
gable,  derived  through  Roman  copy  from  the  Greek  temple  form  27,  28.  Temple 
Bar  shows  the  alternating  curved  variant.     Compare  p.  75  and  p.  9. 


Temple  Bar,  London. 


SCULPTURE. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Elementary  Instruction  in  the  Criticism  of  Sculpture  is  at  present  almost  in- 
separable I'mni  a  historic  review  of  the  subject.  Individual  genius,  armed  by  hai'd 
study  in  original  design,  may  be  superior  to  any  such  instruction,  but  the  related 
historic  knowledge  is  a  valuable  thing  for  the  most  gifted  talent.  In  cases  where 
tne  interested  person  is  not  an  educated  artist  in  design,  the  standards  obtained 
from  a  historic  review  of  the  subject  are  absolutely  essential.  They  will,  at  least, 
promote  modesty  in  the  formation,  and  reticence  in  the  expression,  of  opinions. 
Rfspect  for  the  superior  technical  knowledge  in  which  the  least  successful  profes- 
sic.nal  artist  must  always  excel  the  most  cultivated  amateur,  is  the  first  step 
toward  independence  of  opinion  in  matters  of  subject  and  conception.  In  these 
matters  the  professional  artist  should  be  the  minister  and  agent  of  a  ctiltivated 
public  taste,  which  has  no  necessary  relation  with  a  pui'ely  technical  knowledge 
of  design. 

Modern  Sculpture  as  Influenced  by  the  Antique. — An  additional  reason  which 
mjikes  some  historic  knowledge  essential  to  the  criticism  of  modern  sculpture,  is 
foimd  in  the  fact  that  this  sculpture  has  been  largely  inspired  by  the  Antique 
art,  and  has  been  in  many  ways  dependent  on  it.  In  fact,  the  modern  school  of 
ta.'tte  in  literature  and  art  owes  its  origin  to  the  same  studies  of  Greek  art  and 
literature  which  have  been  already  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  re\'ival 
of  the  Greek  forms  of  architecture  (pp.  5-18).  It  has  been  explained  that  this 
revival  was  not  infallible  in  its  conceptions  of  what  was  appropriate  in  modern 
ar\'hitpcture  (p.  17),  and  it  is  also  true  that  the  influence  of  the  Ajitique  in 
sculpture  has  by  no  means  been  an  unmixed  good.  This  only  makes  the  review 
of  its  influence  the  more  necessary.  Thus  a  sketch  of  the  rise  of  modem  interest 
in  Antique  Greek  art  is  a  natural  introduction  to  the  subject. 

Casts  from  the  Antique  are  generally  found  in  Art  Institutions.  Collections 
of  such  casts  are  already  widely  distributed  in  this  country.  For  this  rea,son,  also, 
some  acquaintance  with  the  history  of  .sculpture  is  a  matter  of  necessarj'  popular 
edjcation. 

Antique  Collections  Enumerated.— There  are,  at  present,  seven  especially  im- 
portant centers  in  Western  Europe  for  the  study  of  Antique  originals — London, 
Paris,  Jlunirh,  Eorlin,  Florence,  Naples,  and  Rome. 

Before  the  Middle  of  the  i8th  Century,  Rome  was,  strictly  speaking,  the  only 
center  tor  Anticjue  studies.  The  collections  of  the  British  Museum  in  London,  of 
the  Tiouvre  Museum  in  Paris,  and  of  the  Glyptothek  (glyp'to  take)  in  Munich,  were 


128  ANTIQUE     SCULPTURE     COLLECTIONS. 

first  formed  in  the  late  18th  and  early  19th  centuries.  Most  of  the  important 
Antique  originals  owned  by  the  Berlin  Museum  are  of  very  recent  acquisition.  The 
leading  statues  of  the  Florence  collection  in  the  palace  of  the  Ufflzi  (yoo  feet'  see; 
were  transported  from  the  Medici  (ined'e  chee)  Villa  at  Rome  toward  the  close  of 
the  18th  century.  (Hence  the  name  of  the  Medici  Venus  in  Florence.)  The 
Museum  of  Naples  owes  its  important  statues  to  two  sources.  Some  pieces,  like 
the  Farnese  (far  neez'  or  farna'sa)  Hercules,  Farnese  Bull  Group,  Farnese  Flora, 
etc.,  were  transported  to  Naples  from  the  Farnese  Palace  at  Rome  toward  the 
close  of  the  18th  century.  The  remainder  came  from  excavations  at  Poinpeii 
(pompa'ee)  and  Herculaneum.  These  excavations  had  begun  a  little  before  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century,  but  no  results  had  been  made  public  at  that  time, 
and  the  statues  found  had  not  been  exhibited. 

Roman  Collections  before  1750. — Thus  it  appears  that  Rome  w^as  in  reality  the 
only  point  at  this  time  where  studies  of  the  Antique  art  were  possible.  Collec- 
tions of  casts  were  still  unknown,  and  individual  casts  were  a  rarity  in  Northern 
Europe.*  Excavations,  and  even  journeys  of  scientific  observation,  had  not  yet 
been  undertaken  in  Greek  territories  (p.  14). 

Roman  Collections  Enumerated. — The  collections  of  statues  in  Rome  were  not 
then  conceived  of  from  the  stand-point  of  Museums.  Three  of  the  five  present 
great  collections  in  Rome  are  Villa  collections — those  of  the  Albani  (al  bah'nS), 
Borghese  (bor  ghay'sa),  and  Ludovisi  (loo  do  vee'se)  Villas.  The  collections  now 
arranged  in  apartments  of  these  villas,  were  then  scattered  through  their  grounds. 
The  collection  of  the  Capitol  Museum,  then  recently  founded,  had  been  the  original 
collection  of  the-  Albani  Villa.  After  its  sale,  the  present  Albani  Villa  collection 
was  begun.  Finally,  the  Vatican  Museum  had  for  its  starting-point  the  collection 
known  as  the  Belvedere,  from  the  Belvedere  Garden  of  the  Vatican  Palace,  where 
these  statues  were  exposed  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century.  After  this 
time  they  were  protected  by  sheds,  but  not  till  after  1750  were  they  removed  to  a 
gallery  in  the  Vatican  Palace. 

Errors  of  Italian  Students. — By  understanding  that  at  this  time  Antique  statues 
were  almost  exclusively  known  as  scattered  through  the  gardens  of  Roman  palaces 
and  villas,  it  will  be  apparent  from  what  stand-point  they  were  viewed  and  studied. 
Italian  patriotic  pride  in  the  ancient  glories  of  the  Roman  Empire  led  to  the 
natural  presumption  that  objects  found  on  the  soil  of  Rome  were  of  Roman  crea- 
tion as  regards  subject  and  origin.  That  these  objects  were  generally  ancient 
copies  or  importations  of  works  of  Greek  art,  was  absolutely  unknown  (p.  13). 
The  interpretations  and  designations  were  a  series  of  errors  based  on  the  erroneous- 
hypothesis  of  a  Roman  origin,  and  were  derived  from  Latin  literature  and  Roman 
history. 

Artistic  Appreciation. — As  regards  the  artistic  appreciation  of  the  Antique 
sculpture,  that  had  still,  on  the  whole,  to  be  developed.  The  general  prejudice  and 
presumption  were  that  the  sculpture  of  the  18th  century  was  superior  to  the  An- 
tique. Certain  ancient  statues  had,  from  the  time  of  Michael  Angelo  (16th  cent- 
ury), been  much  admired,  but  the  general  superiority  of  modern  art  to  the 
ancient  was  supposed  to  be  axiomatic.  The  ancient  statues  were  valued  and 
studied  rather  as  local  relics  than  as  works  of  art.     It  was  at  this  time  (1756), 

♦  It  is  a  disputed  point  whether  the  German  critic  Lessing  had  ever  seen  a  cast  of  the 
Laocoon  Group  when  he  wrote  his  famous  essay  on  it. 


TIIK     0  HEKK      UKVIVAT..  120 

that  a  poor  German  student  came  to  Rome,  who  was  destined  to  revolutionize  the 
ruling  conceptions  of  ancictii  liistdiv,  ami  the  ruling  taste  in  literature,  and  to 
create  the  criticism  and  history  of  art. 

John  Winckehnann  was  born  at  Stendal,  in  Brandenburg  (Prussia),  in  1717,  at  a 
time  when  Genuany  was  in  a  most  backward  condition  of  culture  as  compared 
with  France,  England,  Spain,  or  Italy,  of  the  same  date.  The  German  culture  of 
this  period  was  borrowtni  troin  tlie  French,  but  Xorth  Germany  in  general,  and 
the  province  where  Winckehnann  was  born  in  particular,  were  especially  rude  and 
uncultivated.  Winckelmann's  origin  was  humble,  and  his  early  career  was  har- 
assed by  extreme  poverty.  He  studied,  as  a  young  man,  successively,  theology, 
medicine,  and  mathematics.  He  made  his  living  first  as  a  tutor,  then  as  teacher 
of  a  village  school;  finally  as  ])ri\ate  librarian  and  secretary  to  a  gentleman  of 
rank.  He  had  reached  the  age  of  thirty-eight  without  having  even  seen  the  few 
ancient  statues  then  in  Dresden,  near  which  place  he  was  then  residing.  He  was 
equally  devoid  of  acquaintance  with  works  of  i)aintings,  but  ho  had  always  been 
an  enthusiastic  student  of  Greek  literature.  As  explained  at  ]>!).  13,  14,  Greek 
studies  had  been  for  some  centuries  much  neglected,  and  Winckehnann  had  been 
unable  to  secure  a  footing  through  his  proficiency  in  this  direction. 

Winckelmann  in  Dresden. — Contact  with  an  artist  named  Oeser,  who  valued  his 
genius  and  tTuditiun,  taught  Winckelmann  to  appreciate  the  virtues  of  Raphael. 
The  Sistine  Madonna  by  Raphael  had  just  then  been  purchased  for  the  Dresden 
Gallery.  The  same  painter  taught  Winckelmann  the  artistic  worth  of  the  ancient 
statues  above  mentioned.  These  statues  had  coiiic  from  Herculaneuni  by  way  of 
Vienna,  and  formed  a  rare  exception  to  the  general  absence  of  Antique  statues 
in  Northern  Europe,  in  the  18th  century.  The  ruling  taste  of  the  time  was 
for  theatrical  and  extravagant  art.  The  virtues  of  repose  and  simplicity  which 
distinguish  Raphael  among  artists,  and  which  characterized  the  Antique  in  con- 
trast with  the  emotional  sculpture  of  tlu-  18th  century,  appealed  to  AVinckelmann's 
native  good  taste  as  soon  as  they  were  pointed  out  tn  him.  Thus  was  prompted  a 
pamphlet  "On  the  Imitation  of  the  Ancient  Greeks,"  which  found  approbation 
with  the  King  of  Saxony,  and  procured  "Winckelmann  a  pension  wliich  enabled  him 
to  go  to  Rome. 

Winckelmann  in  Rome. — Winckelmann  lived  thirteen  years  in  Rome,  till  his 
death  in  1768.  He  published  in  1763  the  famous  "History  of  Art,"  which  is  still 
the  basis  of  modern  art  studies  and  art  criticism.  Originally  deficient  in  all 
detail  knowledge  of  the  subject  which  he  made  his  own,  his  Greek  erudition,  and 
the  tenacity  with  which  he  exalted  the  ideal  of  "Repose"  as  the  true  standard  of 
taste,  gave  him  success.  The  latter  principle  appealed  to  the  good-breeding  of 
society,  which  saw  that  the  theatrical  and  sentimental  behavior  .shunned  by 
well-bred  indi\'iduals  was  equally  out  of  taste  in  sculpture.  His  Greek  erudition 
enabled  him  to  overthrow,  one  by  one,  the  interpretations  and  de.signations 
which  had  been  suggested  by  the  false  theory  of  the  Roman  origin  of  Antique 
art.. 

Distinction  between  the  Roman  Portraits  and  Greek  Antiques. — One  class  of 
works  was  proven  by  Winckelmann's  indication  of  the  Greek  subjects  to  be  dis- 
tinctively Roman — \iz.,  the  Roman  portrait-busts  and  statues.  Thus,  for  the  first 
time  the  ideality  of  the  Antique  Greek  art  was  established  by  the  elimination  of 
the  Roman  portraits.  Its  sentiment  for  beauty  was  now  also,  for  the  first  time, 
apparent.      For  as  long   as    the  realistic   works  of  Roman   portraiture  were  con- 


130  INFLUENCE     OF     WINCKELMANN. 

sidered  as  an  integral  part  of  Antique  art  as  a  whole,  this  sentiment  could  not 
be  distingtiished. 

The  Periods  of  Greek  Art. — Finally  the  standards  of  simplicity  and  repose  were 
demonstrated  for  the  G-reeks  by  a  curious  revelation  of  historic  insight.  The 
statues  which  had,  since  Michael  Angelo's  time,  been  most  admired  were  proven 
to  be  works  of  the  Greek  decadence.  Individual  pieces  of  ancient  sculpture  had 
been  admired  before  the  time  of  Winckeimann,  but  always  those  which  tended 
toward  the  pathetic,  theatrical,  or  realistic  tendencies  of  the  18th  century.  Winck- 
elmann  was  thus  the  first,  not  only  to  indicate  the  existence  of  an  independent 
Greek  art,  but  also  to  demonstrate  the  divisions  of  periods  and  styles  within  its 
general  limits.  These  periods  are  still  divided  according  to  the  outlines  which  he 
indicated. 

The  First  Direct  Result  of  Winckelmann's  Career  was  the  reversal  of  the  taste 
which  had  so  far  pronounced  the  Latin  literature  to  be  superior  to  the  Greek.  It 
was  impossible  to  assert  the  superiority  of  a  copy  as  against  an  original.  The 
Roman  sculpture  had  been  proven  (aside  from  its  portraits)  to  be  copy  from  the 
Greek,  and  this  involved  the  whole  Roman  literature  and  Roman  civilization  in 
the  same  argument.  Hence  that  sudden  expansion  of  interest  in  Greek  literature, 
Greek  history,  and  Greek  territories  which  still  continues  (p.  17).  A  temporary 
influence  on  the  styles  of  modern  architecture  has  been  already  indicated  (p.  6, 
and  Xos.  3,  4). 

In  Modern  Sculpture  the  names  of  the  Italian  Canova,  and  of  the  Dane  Thor- 
waldsen  (resident  in  Rome)  are  the  external  landmarks  of  what  may  be  called  the 
Winckelmann  revival.  Winckelmann  himself  did  not  exercise  a  direct  personal 
influence  on  modern  sculpture.  The  tendency  to  affect  an  imitation  of  the  Greek 
art  was  rather  a  result  of  the  Greek  literary  and  historic  studies  which  were 
prompted  by  his  discoveries. 

Influence  of  the  Greek  Revival. — From  the  time  of  the  artists  named  (late  18th 
and  early  19th  centuries),  inodern  sculpture  has  been,  till  recently,  almost  exclu- 
sively controlled  by  an  external  imitation  of  the  Antique,  either  in  form  or  subject. 
At  present,  corresponding  to  the  art  revival  in  other  directions,  already  mentioned 
in  architecture  and  decoration,  a  parallel  and  praiseworthy  tendencj'  to  modern  free- 
dom and  modern  independence  is  apparent  in  sculpture.  But  while  the  imitation 
of  Greek  forms  and  subjects  must  be  ephemeral,  the  standards  of  taste  drawn 
from  Greek  sculpture  must  always  remain  authoritative.  Hence  the  great  impor- 
tance of  this  subject  for  students.  It  is  not  as  works  of  sculpture  alone,  but  as 
standards  of  taste,  that  the  Greek  statues  are  valuable.  Casts  of  these  statues  are 
universally  employed  by  schools  of  design  as  models  of  exercise  for  technical 
instruction.  This  fact  alone  would  make  some  knowledge  of  the  history  of 
ancient  art  a  matter  of  necessary  and  useful  information. 

The  Greek  Sculpture  Developed  from  the  Oriental. — This,  then,  must  be  first 
briefly  considered  both  as  a  matter  of  history,  for  the  understanding  of  Greek  art, 
and  for  its  own  independent  interest. 


ANCIENT   ORIENTAL   NATIONS. 

CHALDEAN    AND    ASSYRIAN    SCULPTURE. 

Chaldean  Sculpture. — As  a  matter  of  aieliaeologic  interest,  cer* 
tain  recent  discoveries  of  ancient  Chaldean  statues  have  great  value. 
They  demonstrate  a  fact  which  has  also  recently  been  made  known 
as  to  Egyptian  art,  ^iz. :  that  the  oldest  known  works  are  the  best ; 
possessing  qualities  of  verisimilitude  and  faithful  science  which 
have  not  been  previoush^  credited  to  the  ancient  Oriental  art.  The 
later,  more  schematic  and  conventional,  works  of  the  ancient  Orien- 
tals were  those  first  known  to  modern  discoverers.  The  statnes  in 
question  are  of  high  antiquity  (about  3800  B.C.).  Nos.  70  and  71 
are  specimens  of  this  sculpture.  The  few  Assyrian  statues  known, 
of  much  later  time,  but  derived  from  the  early  Chaldean,  have 
no  great  importance  or  interest. 

The  Assyrian  Sculpture,  as  known  to  us,  was  almost  entirely  in 
relief,  on  the  stone  slabs  with  which  the  walls  of  the  Royal  palaces 
(p.  3  7)  wrix'  decorated  (No.  21).  The  scenes  from  the  lives  and 
wars  of  the  kings  are  frequently  designed  with  great  vigor  and 
fidelity  to  nature.  As  befitting  a  style  of  architectural  surface 
design,  perspective  was  ignored.  The  Oriental  taste  regarded  art 
rather  as  a  means  to  symbolize  ideas  or  facts  than  as  a  literal  imi- 
tation of  nature.  It  Avas  pictorial  writing  rather  than  pictorial  art. 
Large  numbers  of  the  slabs  in  question  are  in  the  British  ^Museum. 
The  best  designs  belong  to  the  7th  century  B.C.  The  later  Babylonian 
and  Persian  periods  of  sculpture  were  continuations  of  the  Assyrian 
as  regards  historic  derivation  (74,  75). 

EGYPTIAN    SCULPTURE. 

The  Earliest  Known  Egyptian  Statues  have  been  founa  m  hid- 
den well-like  recesses  connected  with  tombs  (70,  7^,  and  p.  3  7). 
They  are  portraits  of  the  deceased  persons  buried  in  these  tombs, 
or    of    attendants,    the    latter    represented    occasionally    in    various 


132  EGYPTIAN     SCULPTURE. 

menial  occupations.  These  figures  belong  to  a  stage  of  the  Egyp- 
tian belief  in  immortality  which  conceived  of  a  spiritual  "  double," 
which  was  dependent  on  the  preservation  of  the  mummy,  or  on  an 
effigy  in  default  of  this  preservation,  for  well-being  in  its  spiritual 
existence.  The  statues  of  attendants  represent  the  assistants  whom 
this  "  double "  existence  was  supposed  to  need,  according  to  the 
station  held  in  life.  This  early  class  of  statues  has  been  known  for 
a  comparatively  short  time  onh'.  The  first  examples  were  shown 
in  Europe,  at  Paris,  in  186  7,  and  most  of  them  are  at  present  in 
the  Boulak  Museum,  near  Cairo. 

Characteristics  of  Early  Egyptian  Sculpture. — These  statues  ex- 
hibit frequently  a  supple  and  highly  realistic  art  absolutely  foreign 
to  the  generally  preconceived  opinions  of  Egyptian  sculpture.  Com- 
pare "The  Scribe"  (p.  136)  with  79,  as  tj'pical  for  later  periods  of 
Egyptian  art.  Although  the  chronolog}"  of  the  remoter  periods  of 
Egyptian  history  is  not  definitely  settled,  the  date  of  the  latest  of 
this  particular  class  is  at  least  earlier  than  2  300  b.c. 

The  Later  Eg-yptian  Sculpture  after  1800  b.c.  (example  at  79)  is 
far  from  lacking  science  and  the  sentiment  of  realism,  but  its  atti- 
tudes are  conventional  and  the  outward  formalism  is  such  that  the 
distinctions  between  superior  and  inferior  Avork  require  exact  atten- 
tion and  some  sympathy  with  Egyptian  types  of  art.  This  sympathy 
depends  again  on  comprehension  of  the  character  of  the  people  and 
of  their  history,  but  this  comprehension  is  easily  acquired  from  the 
works  of  art  themselves,  if  they  be  viewed  as  expressions  of  char- 
acter. The  attitude  which  regards  all  expressions  of  art  of  novel 
aspect  simply  as  targets  for  criticism  and  ridicule,  is  as  fatal  to 
independence  in  modern  art  as  it  is  to  comj)rehension  of  any  other. 

The  Formal  Attitudes  of  this  later  and  more  generally  known 
Egyptian  sculpture  mainly  exhibit  the  figure  standing  erect  with 
pendant  arms  and  the  left  leg  advanced,  or  seated,  with  body  faced 
exactly  to  the  front  and  stiffly  posed,  the  arms  and  hands  resting 
on  the  knees.  The  portrait  statues  of  the  kings  are  the  most 
numerous,  and  the  statues  are  otherwise  portraits,  or  representa- 
tions of  divinities.  The  illustration,  79,  offers  a  better  idea  of  the 
peculiarities  of  the  Egyptian  style  than  description  conveys.  Once 
observed,  the  general  resemblances  are  unmistakable  and  in  sin- 
gular contrast  with  the  freedom  and  realism  of  the  earlier  statues 
mentioned. 


TO.     Chaldean  Statue,   Louvre. 


71.     Chaldean  Sculpture,   Louvre. 


72.     Tiglath   Pileser  II.  besieging  a  town.     Assyrian  relief  from  Nineveh.     British  Museum. 


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EGYPTIAN     SCULPTURE.  135 

Explanation  of  the  Conventional  Egyptian  Style. — It  is  clear 
that  the  representations  of  kings  ami  tlivinities  were  the  all- 
important  ones,  and  that  a  style  was  gradually  created  for  these 
which  reacted  on  all  other  statues.  The  effort  was  to  present  the 
king  or  divinity  in  a  solemn  and  imposing  mminor,  unaffected 
by  the  transient  emotions  and  momentary  gestures  and  attitudes 
of  daily  life.  The  ideal  of  uuapproachability,  of  authority,  of  dig- 
nity, was  conveyed  by  tho  fixed  attitude  and  the  magisterial  pose. 
The  relation  between  the  style  of  temple  architecture  (pp.  29-42) 
and  the  style  of  sculpture  is  unmistakable.  The  same  conditions 
created  both. 

Influence  of  the  Priests. — Much  stress  has  been  laid  on  the  pre- 
scriptions and  formulas  of  the  priests  as  confining  Egyptian  sculpture 
to  certain  fixed  proportions,  methods,  and  attitudes.  This  influence 
of  the  priests  is  doubtless  to  bo  admitted,  l)ut  it  is  also  clear  that 
the  tendencies  of  national  character  and  national  history  created 
the  priestly  caste  and  determined  its  general  administration.  The 
conservative  nature  of  the  Egj^ptians,  their  tenacious  regard  for  the 
external  conditions  of  solidity  and  durability,  both  of  aspect  and  of 
the  material  itself,  their  reverence  for  tradition,  and  their  indiffer- 
ence to  casual  and  accidental  aspects  of  nature,  are  all  apparent  in 
their  later  sculpture.  They  chose  to  represent  the  general  rather 
than  the  particular  and  their  art  is  clearly  monumental  in  its 
mission.  Its  greatest  interest  is  the  light  which  it  throws  on  the 
Egyptians  themselves. 

The  Period  of  Ramses  II.,  about  1350  B.C.,  was  the  most  prolific 
in  monumental  art,  and  at  this  time  the  enormous  amount  of  pro- 
duction is  thought  to  have  promoted  a  superficial  and  conventional 
execution,  wanting  that  mastery  of  details  (within  the  limits  of  the 
conventional  style)  which  characterizes  earlier  statues. 

The  Decline  in  historic  force  and  vitality  which  appears  in  Egypt 
after  1200  b.c,  undoubtedly  is  reflected  in  tlu'  character  of  the 
later  sculpture  as  regards  its  minor  details ;  but  the  general  re.sem- 
blances  and  general  character  of  I^lgyptian  art  remained  ahsolutely 
unchanged  throughout  the  Persian,  Greek,  and  fJonian  conquests 
(pp.  3  7,  57,  6()).  In  tho  Roman  Imperial  period  the  .style  of  its 
Egyptian  province  i)enetrated  even  to  the  capital  of  the  Empire, 
and  distinguishes  some  of  the  latest  efforts  of  the  Greco-Roman 
sculpture. 


136 


EGYPTIAN"    SCULPTURE. 


NOTES    ON   THE   ILLUSTRATIONS   FOR   CHALLEAN,    ASSYRIAN,   AND 

EGYPTIAN    SCUIiPTURE. 

(70-79,  inclvisive.) 

The  specimens  of  earlj-  Chaldean  art  at  TO,  71  are  from  excavations  at  Telle, 
carried  on  by  M.  De  Sarzec,  the  French  Consul  at  Bagdad,  between  and  since  the 

years  1877-1881.  jSTos.  72,  73,  are  AssjTian  re- 
liefs, and  Nos.  74,  75,  represent  the  later  Persian 
continuation  of  the  Assyrian  art. 

At  76  is  shown  the  celebrated  wooden  statue 
of  Ea-em-ka,  ' '  Governor  of  Provinces  " — time  of 
the  Fifth  Dynasty.  The  period  of  King  Shafra 
(78)  was  probably  about  4000  b.c.  (Fourth  Dy- 
nasty). His  pyramid  is  showm  at  20.  Both 
statues  were  found  by  the  French  Egyptologist 
Mariette.  The  period  of  Ramses  II.  (79)  was 
about  1350  B.C.  King  Menephthah  (77)  was  his 
son.  The  same  Egyptian  style  continued  till  the 
4th  centur\-  a.d.  The  statues  at  Ipsamboul  are 
seventy-five  feet  high,  and  flank  the  entrance  to 
a  rock-cut  temple  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in 
Statues  of  even  larger  size  were  also  cut  out  in 


The   Scribe,   Louve. 


depth  and  thirty-five  feet  high. 

the  sohd  block,  and  transported  hundreds  of  miles. 

An  illustration  of  Egj-ptian  sculpture  in  relief  is  shown  at  169.  King  Seti  I., 
whose  portrait  in  relief  is  there  shown,  was  father  of  Ramses  II.,  and  Lived  about 
1400   B.C.  (Nineteenth  D^masty). 


Assyrian  Human-Headed  Winged  Bull. 


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'9.    COLOSSAL   STATUE   OF   RAMESES   IL.    IPSAMBOUL 


GREECE. 

EARLY    GREEK    SCULPTURE. 

Early  Period.-There  are  ii-  aat^.l  examples  of  Greek  sculpture 
earlier  than  the  0th  century  B.C.,  antl  its  line.st  examples  are  of  the 
following  century.  Apparently  the  Greeks  did  not  generally  practice 
sculpture  in  stone  before  the  7th  century  B.C.  The  famous  T.,n„- 
cate"  of  Jlycena.  is  the  only  existing  work  which  is  defmitely 
ascribed  to  "an  earlier  time,  and  this  belongs  to  the  prehistoric 
period  before  1100  B.C.,  and  is  apparently  of  foreign  (Lycian  or 
Carian)  workmanship. 

Oriental  Influence  through  Asia  Minor.-The  eastern  and  south- 
eastern pl•o^dnces  of  Asia  Minor  (Phrygia,  Lydia,  Lycia,  Caria,  etc.) 
were  among  the  connecting  links  between  Oriental  art  and  history 
and  that  of  the  Greeks.  Greek  colonies  lined  the  shores  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  the  adjoining  Lydian  Empire  was  an  Assyrian  depend- 
ency as  regards  its  civilization.  This  Empire,  in  its  greatest  devel- 
opment (6th  and  7th  centuries  B.C.),  comprehended  all  the  provinces 

inst  named.  .  .      .^     -i 

■      Oriental    Influence    through    Cyprus. -More    nuportant,    because 
more  direct,  points  of  contact  with  the  Oriental  civilizations-Chal- 
d,.o-Assvrian    and    Egyptian-were    the    Vhcenician   colonies   estab- 
lished  on   the  Greek   Islands  and  ar.,una    the   shore   of  Greece    in 
the  times  before  Greek  civilization  l,«oame  powerful,  but  the.se  had 
been  mainlv  expelled  before  the  date  of  the  development  of  Greek 
sculpture.    "The    Island    of    Cyprus,    colonized    in    various    distinct 
quarters   both  bv  Greeks  and  Phoenicians,  was  a   place  where  they 
continued  in   dir"ect  contact  during    and   after  this   tin.e,   and   thus 
was    a    most    important    spot    for    the    development    of    Greek    art. 
A  glance  at  the  map  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean  will  show  how 
the    Phoenicians    of    the   Syrian    coast    naturally    amalgamated    u, 
their  own  civilization  influences  from  Egypt  on  the  one  hand,  and 
from  the  Tigris-Euphrates  Valley  on  the   other.     These   influences 


1-10  EARLY     GREEK     SCULPTURE. 

operated  on  the  Greeks  in  Cyprus  in  a  most  decided  manner 
(80,  81,  82). 

Direct  Influence  from  Egypt. — The  most  important  point  of  con- 
tact between  the  civilizations  of  the  ancient  East  and  the  rising 
culture  of  the  Greeks  was  in  the  delta  of  the  Nile,  during  and  after 
the  8th  century  B.C.  In  the  decline  of  the  Egyptian  Empire  at  this 
time,  the  earlier  policy  of  exclusion  was  abandoned.  Greek  merce- 
naries became  the  military  force  of  the  Egyptian  kings.  Greek 
colonies  were  consequently  established  in  the  Nile  Delta.  The  inter- 
course between  these  Greeks  in  Egypt  and  the  mother  country  was 
constant  and  intimate  during  the  8th,  7th,  and  6th  centuries  e.g. 
Recent  excavations  at  Naukratis,  in  the  Nile  Delta,  have  substan- 
tiated the  natural  hypothesis  of  an  Egyptian  influence  on  Greek 
art,  spreading  from  this  point. 

Cypriote  Greek  Art. — Among  the  statues  from  Cyprus  in  the 
Metropolitan  Art  Museum  of  New  York,  are  a  number  illustrating 
the  various  stages  of  transition  between  Oriental  art  and  the  fully 
developed  Greek.  It  is  quite  probable  (almost  positively  certain), 
that  even  the  absolutely  Oriental  types  in  this  series  are  Greek 
works  under  Oriental  influence,  and  imitating  their  external  appear- 
ance (80-82).  No.  80  shows  Egyptian  influence;  Nos.  81,  82  show 
Assyrian  influence.    Compare  73. 

The  Style  of  Greek  Sculpture  about  500  B.C. — that  is,  about  ten 
years  before  the  birth  of  Phidias — is  still  archaic,  and  shows  palpable 
reminiscences  of  Egyptian  influence — in  the  stiff  pose,  and  in  a  fre- 
quent adherence  to  the  Egyptian  attitude  in  erect  statues,  which 
places  the  left  leg  in  advance,  etc.  In  the  figures  of  this  period  there 
are  also  reminiscences  and  influences  of  the  Greek  statues,  which 
preceded  the  period  of  the  stone  figures,  and  which  continued  to  be 
reverenced  even  during  the  time  of  fully  developed  art — viz.,  the 
wooden  puppets  and  wooden  figures  which  were  dressed  in  garments, 
and  which  served  as  the  earliest  temple  statues.  The  garments  of 
these  figures  were  plaited  in  a  set,  quaint  fashion,  which  is  imitated 
in  the  zigzag  drapery  lines  of  the  early  works  in  stone. 

The  Subjects  of  Early  Greek  Sculpture. — As  to  the  subjects 
and  use  of  the  Greek  statues  about  500  B.C.,  it  maybe  said  that  the 
most  important  were  those  made  for  temples  and  shrines.  The 
Tiythology  underlying  these  statuary  subjects  is  a  most  important 
element  in  the   perception   of  their  relation   to   Greek  life   and  art. 


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a,  Hercules  carrying  off  the  Cercopes. 


b.  Perseus  and  the  Medusa. 


84.    Apollo  of  >'enca,  Muuich.,  ,    53^  a.  b.     Metopes  Selinus.        85.    Tomb-stone  of  Aristion,  Athens, 


"■    •■     (*   c"'     ,  ♦.    " 


GKEEK    AKflilTECTUKAL     SCULriLKE.  143 

Probably  the  study  of  niytholdgic  art  may  be  made  more  success- 
fully at  first,  in  connection  wiili  examples  of  the  perfected  art,  and 
thus  we  may,  for  the  moment,  overlook  this  aspect  of  the  subject. 

Nos.  83a  and  h  illustrate  the  rude  Greek  art  of  the  Gth  century 
B.C.,  from  the  metopes  of  a  temple  at  Selinus,  in  Sicily;  No.  85  is 
an  illustration  of  the  style  about  500  B.C. — all  interesting  as  con' 
trasts  with  the  developed  art  Avhich  followed. 

The  Gymnastic  Culture  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  connection  of  this 
culture  with  their  military  system,  had  already  produced  a  statuary 
type  of  athletes.  The  distinction  between  the  early  Apollo  type 
and  the  early  type  of  athlett^'^  is  not  clear,  and  it  is  probable  that 
the  same  type  served  occasionally  for  either  subject  (84). 

GREEK   ARCHITECTURAL    SCULPTURE. 

Reliefs  from  Selinus. — The  temple  architecture  had  begun  to  em- 
ploy sculptured  decoration  at  this  time.  The  metopes  from  the  temple 
at  Selinus,  in  Sicily,  above  referred  to  (now  at  Palermo),  probably 
date  from  the  earlier  part  of  the  Gth  century  B.C.*  They  are  the 
only  remaining  temple  architectural  sculptures  of  the  Gth  century. 

Reliefs  from  Assos. — The  style  of  sculptured  temple  decoration 
soon  after  500  i?.c.,  is  indicated  by  the  frieze  and  metopes  from  the 
Temple  of  Assos,  in  Asia  Minor,  which  are  partly  in  the  Louvre, 
partly  in  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts.  These  again  are  a 
unique  monument  of  the  early  5th  century  style.  As  provincial 
work,  remote  from  the  active  progressive  movement  of  Greek  art  at 
this  time,  these  sculptures  may,  however,  individually  date  as  lat« 
as  those  next  mentioned. 

The  iCgina  Marbles. — The  style  of  Greek  Temple  architectural 
sculpture  about  4  70  li.c,  is  indicated  by  the  noted  gable  sculptures, 
in  Munich,  from  a  Temple  of  Minerva,  on  the  Island  of  -.^gina 
(6  ^r  nah),  West  of  Attica,  representing  combats  <«f  Greeks  and 
Trojans.  Certain  figures  of  this  series  from  the  angle  of  one  of 
these  gables  are  shown  at  No.  8  7.  The  warriors'  figures  exhibit  a 
fully  developed  mastery  of  technical  knowledge  and  execution  in 
sculpture,  and  it  must  be  obsei'ved  that  they  are  only  a  quarter  of 
a  century  later  than  the  type  represented  by  the  illustration  for 
500  B.C.  (85).  Although  the  faces  have  .still  an  archaic  character, 
any  greater  detail   or  refinement   of  facial    expression   would   have 

♦  For  the  location  of  the  metopes  in  a  Greek  temnle,  aee  p.  61. 


144  GREEK     ARCHITECTUKAL     SCULPTURE. 

been   lost   at  the   elevation   where   the   figures   were   placed,    and   at 
the  distance  from  which  they  were  necessarily  viewed. 

Sculpture  of  the  Jupiter  Temple  at  Olympia. — The  next  step  in 
the  development  of  architectural  sculpture  decoration,  as  far  as 
existing  remains  are  concerned,  is  found  in  the  gable  and  metope 
sculptures  from  the  Jupiter  Temple  at  Olympia.  With  exception  of 
one  or  two  metopes  in  the  Louvre,  these  have  been  excavated  since 
1875,  and  are  still  at  the  site  of  discovery.  Their  date  is  about 
twenty  years  later  than  the  ^gina  figures,  i.e.,  about  450  B.C.  The 
tinge  of  archaic  influence  coloring  the  style  of  the  ^gina  sculpture 
has  disappeared  in  these  works. 

Elgin  Marbles. — A  final  landmark  in  the  development  of  Greek 
sculpture  is  the  work  of  the  Parthenon  frieze  and  Parthenon  gables 
(p.  51).  The  metope  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  have  an  analogous 
but  not  quite  equal  importance.  The  general  date  may  be  fixed  in 
round  numbers  as  440  B.C.  The  Parthenon  was  finished  in  438. 
The  well-known  masterpieces  of  this  series,  now  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum of  London,  are  named  from  the  English  Minister  to  Turkey, 
who  procured  their  removal  from  Athens,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century— the  "Elgin  Marbles"  (illustrations  at  88-90).  The 
scientific  and  technical  perfection  of  these  works  is  characterized 
by  a  simple  dignity  and  unaffected  grace,  peculiar  to  all  original 
statues  of  the  great  Greek  periods. 

Subjects  Represented. — The  subject  of  the  group  to  which  the 
figure  90  belonged,  was  the  birth  of  Minerva  from  the  brain  of 
Jupiter.  The  figures  preserved  represent  divinities  and  heroes  of 
the  Greek  mythical  series.  The  designations  are  uncertain,  but  the 
usually  quoted  names  are  sufficient  for  specification.  The  absence 
of  expression  in  the  face  of  the  "Theseus"  befits  the  distance  from 
which  the  gable  was  necessarily  viewed.  The  sharp  cutting  of  dra- 
pery folds  in  other  figures,  and  the  generally  bold  and  vigorous 
methods  of  execution,  are  all  related  to  the  effects  of  distance  and 
of  elevation. 

The  Parthenon  Frieze. — The  location  of  the  frieze  was  at  the 
top  of  the  exterior  temple  wall  under  the  portico  ceiling.  Its  sub- 
ject, as  generally  interpreted,  is  the  Panathenaic  Procession,  which 
every  fifth  year  celebrated  the  gift  of  a  new  mantle  to  the  ancient 
wooden  Minerva  statue  of  the  Erechtheium  (p.  52).  The  treat- 
ment of  the   frieze   is  decorative,  without  details,  and  in  sympathy 


86.     Gable  Sculpture  of  ^gina.     Restored  view. 


87.     Gable  Sculpture  from  i'Egina,   Munich. 


P5T 


88.     Section  of  the  P-^-thenon  Frieze,   British  Museum. 


"ol'    •  ' 


to  c 


^^89.    Metope  Sculpture  from  the  Parthenon,  British  Museum, 
go.     Theseus  of  the  Parthenon  Gable,  British  Museum. 


GREEK    ARCHITECTURAL    SCULPTURE.  147 

with  the  architi'Ctuial  purpose.  In  its  design,  vigor  and  vitality  of 
feeling  are  combined  with  simplicity.  Illustration  88  shows  a  small 
portion  of  this  frieze. 

Parthenon  Metopes. — The  subjects  of  the  Parthenon  metopes  are 
mainly  combats  uf  Greeks  with  Centaurs.  These  again  must  be 
studit'd  with  reference  to  tlu'ir  architectural  location  and  effect  (80). 

Balustrade  Reliefs  of  the  Temple  of  "Wingless  Victory." — In 
the  order  of  time,  as  regards  the  most  important  existing  remains, 
the  balustrade  reliefs  of  the  so-called  "Wingless  Victory  Temple 
(p.  57  and  Xo.  2  7)  come  next,  dating  altoul  400  B.C.  The  temple 
s  built  on  a  projecting  spur  of  the  Acropolis,  and  the  balustrade 
was  a  solid  wall  of  marble  slabs  decorated  with  reliefs.  The  best 
preserved  figures  are  two  "Victories,"  one  loosening  her  sandal  (92), 
now  kept  inside  the  little  temple.  The  comparison  of  this  cele- 
brated figure  with  89  and  00  shows  a  difference  of  style  analogous 
to  the  distinction  between  the  Doric  and  Ionic  orders,  which  reflects 
the  same  changes  in  taste  and  history  (p.  52), 

Reliefs  from  Halicarnassus. — The  same  distinction  appears,  by 
contrast  with  the  Parthenon  frieze,  in  the  more  rapid  movement  of 
the  frieze  reliefs  (combats  of  Greeks  with  Amazons)  from  the  tomb 
monument  of  the  Carian  ruler,  ]\Iausolus — the  "Mausoleum,"  located 
in  South-western  Asia  ]\Iinor,  and  dating  from  the  -Ith  century  b.c. 
These  are  in  the  Britisli  ]\Iuseum.* 

Reliefs  from  the  Lysicrates  Monument. — The  related  contrast 
between  the  tastes  of  the  Doric  and  Ionic  periods,  appears  once 
more  in  the  frieze  reliefs  of  the  Choragic  ^Monument  of  Lysicrates 
(p.  58  and  No.  31),  still  in  position.  The  sul)ject  is  the  transforma- 
tion into  dol{)hins  of  pirates  assailing  the  train  of  Bacchus. 

Reliefs  from  Pergamus.  —  A  more  violent  and  extravagant  art 
appears  in  the  immense  frieze  relief  from  which  the  best  fragments 
are  now  in  Berlin,  and  which  decorated  the  great  altar  of  Zeus 
(Jupiter)  at  Pergamus,  in  Asia  Elinor.  The  subject  of  the  largest 
frieze  is  the  combat  of  the  gods  and  giants.  The  change  of  style 
again  indicates  a  succession  in  time,  otherwise  attested  (2d  century 
B.C.),  and  is  related  to  the  general  development  and  subsequent 
decadence  of  the  Greek  sculpture,  presently  to  be  sketched.  No.  93 
is  a  fragment  of  this  frieze.     (Restoration  of  the  altar  at  04.) 

♦  As  remarked  in  the  Preface,  the  Soule  phototjraphs  offer  cheap  and  easily  obtainable  illus- 
trations of  all  objects  mentioned  in  text  without  illustration. 


148  ROMAN     COPIES     AND     GREEK     ORiGINALS. 

The  Foregoing  List  presents,  in  sequence  of  time,  most  of  the  fairlj-  well  pre- 
served and  important  works  of  Greek  architectural  sculptured  decoration  which 
have  been  so  far  made  known  to  students.  The  subjects  constantly  re-appearing 
in  Greek  art  of  the  combats  of  the  gods  and  giants,  combats  of  Greeks  and  Ama- 
zons, combats  of  Greeks  and  Centaurs,  etc.,  all  relate  to  that  contest  between 
brutal  elemental  forces  and  civilization,  which  was  so  prominent  an  aspect  of 
life  to  the  delicate  cultivation  of  the  Greeks. 

Dates  of  Excavation  or  Discovery. — Without  exception,  the  works  mentioned 
have  only  come  under  the  close  attention  of  students  since  the  opening  of  the 
present  centurj',  and  they  have  added  many  new  conceptions  to  the  views  of 
Greek  art  propounded  by  "Winckelmann,  but  they  have  been  especially  of  vajue  in 
verif}i.ng  the  position  taken  by  him  as  to  the  distinction  between  original  Greek 
works  and  those  copies  of  the  Roman  Imperial  period  which  had  been  almost  the 
only  Greek  statues  previously  known.  In  this  sense,  Winckelmann  was  the 
prophet  of  these  later  discoveries  of  the  original  Greek  sculptures,  which  were 
unknown  to  him.  On  the  other  hand,  the  colder  and  more  mechanical  work  of 
the  Roman  Imperial  period  had  influenced  the  tj'pes  of  imitativ^e  modern  art 
before  the  superior  vitality  and  vigor  of  the  original  Greek  art  had  been  appre- 
ciated, and  this  influence  was  not  easily  supplanted.  If  the  history  of  art  had  no 
other  value  for  modern  sculpture,  it  would  be  something  to  show  that  the  modern 
Antique  art,  dating  from  Canova  and  Thorwaldsen,  had  drawn  its  Antique  aspects 
rather  from  the  colder  and  more  formal  art  of  the  Roman  copjang  period  than 
from  Greek  originals. 

ROMAN    COPIES    AND    GREEK    ORIGINALS. 

Distinction  between  Ancient  Originals  and  Ancient  Copies. — The 

attentive  studj'  of  the  Greek  architectural  sculpture,  and  of  the 
qualities  of  original  Greek  execution,  has  led  to  the  identification 
of  various  original  Greek  statues  scattered  through  European  muse- 
ums, Avhich  had  been  imported  into  Italy  from  Greek  countries 
during  or  just  before  the  time  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Others  have 
been  discovered,  of  late  years,  on  Greek  soil.  Two  of  these,  the 
"'Victory"  by  Pseonius  (95)  and  the  Mercury  by  Praxiteles  (96),  are 
especially  famous.  See  also  the  Milo  Venus  (106).  Again,  the  num- 
ber of  these  original  Greek  statues  is  considerable,  though  (as  far  as 
remains  are  concerned)  not  considerable  in  relation  to  the  immense 
number  of  copies  made  in  the  Roman  Imperial  time.  It  is  thus 
highh'  important  to  understand  the  distinction  between  certain 
famous  statues  which  are  admired  for  the  motive,*  pose,  conception, 
and  because  they  are  known  to  be  copies  of  famous  lost  originals — 
and  others  which  are  admired  not  only  for  such  traits,  but,  also, 
for  the   qualities   of   original   Greek   execution.     The  Apollo  Belve- 

*  7.  e.,  the  action  or  aspect  of  the  subject  chosen. 


gi.     "Victory,"  Athenian  Acropolis. 


92.     "Victory,"  Athenian  Acropolis. 


93.     From  the  Battle  of  the  Gods  and  Giants  at  Pcrgamus,   Berlin. 


oi  o 


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TYPleAL     GKEKK     STATL'KS.  151 

dere  (118)  and  the  so-called  Marble  Faun  (ilu)  may  be  mentioned 
as  types  of  the  llrst  class ;  the  Theseus,  ]\lilu  Venus,  '*  Victory ''  by 
Pceonius,  and  ]\Ieivurv  by  Praxiteles  are  types  of  the  second. 

Another  Distinction  to  be  made  is  that  between  original  Greek 
statues  by  unknown  artists,  and  those  to  which  the  name  of  a 
famous  Greek  artist  can  be  definitely  fixed.  The  ]\Iercury  and 
"Victory"  are,  so  far,  the  only  works  known  of  the  latter  class, 
dating  from  the  originating  periods  of  Greek  art,  aside  from  some 
architectural  sculptures.  The  "  Elgin  Marbles "  are  works  of  the 
school  of  Phidias,  n(U  actually  creations  of  his  chisel. 

Typical  Subjects. — in  architectural  sculptures  the  subjects  were 
restricted  to  the  Greek  myths,  and  in  all  statues  that  character  of 
Greek  art  must  be  especially  noted  which  led  it  to  be  content  with 
the  constant  repetition  of  a  certain  series  of  tj^pes.  These  represent 
the  well-known  m\i:hological  personifications  of  Greek  belief,  and 
only  in  exceptional  cases  did  Greek  art  go  outside  of  or  beyond 
them.  Statues  of  athletes  are  the  only  important  additional  class. 
In  this  sense,  the  Greek  scnlj^ture  appears  as  the  expression  either 
of  the  gymnastic  life  or  of  the  religious  beliefs  of  the  people,  and 
is  especially  interesting  for  this  relation  to  them.  Belief  in  the 
gods  as  spiritual  beings,  generally  ceased,  or  seriously  declined,  in 
the  4th  century  B.C.,  but  the  statues  of  them  continued  to  be  made 
as  ideal  personifications  of  the  qualities,  virtues,  and  activities  which 
they  had  previously  symbolized. 

Enumeration  of  Certain  Types. — Thus,  statues  of  Vulcan  as  the 
artificer,  of  Venus  (lOG  and  120)  and  Cupid  (108)  as  personifications 
of  the  passion  of  love,  of  Bacchus  (l'U>)  as  harvest  divinity,  of  the 
Fauns  (10  7,  113)  as  types  of  a  natural  animal  existence  in  the 
woods  and  fields,  were  equally  significant  for  Greek  feeling,  whether 
the  actual  belief  in  the  divinity  had,  or  had  not,  disappeared.  From 
this  point  of  view,  an  enumeration  of  some  other  Greek  types  is  of 
value.  The  Hercules  ideal  (117)  represented  physical  energy  de- 
voted to  the  cause  of  civilization.  The  Amazon  statues  (102)  were 
personifications  of  heroism  and  martial  valoi-.  The  Jupiters  (100) 
and  Junes  (101)  personified  the  power  of  the  Avill.  The  Apollos 
(111,  112,  118)  were  types  of  musical  and  gymnastic  cultivation. 
The  Mercuries  (96)  also  personified  gymnastic  cultivation.  The 
Dianas  (119)  were  types  of  female  chastity.  The  ]Minervas  (98,  99) 
symbolized  intellectual  enlightenment,  etc. 


Ib'Z  TYPICAL     GREEK     STATUES. 

Repetitions  of  Typical  Subjects. — Each  one  of  these  types  was 
reproduced  in  hundreds  and  thousands  of  examples.  The  individual 
statues  varied,  one  from  the  other,  in  attitude  or  in  motive  (com- 
pare 98  Avith  90,  10  7  with  113,  106  with  120),  yet  each  concep- 
tion was  stamped  by  certain  simple  attributes  and  peculiarities. 
Thus,  the  Yenus  is  the  only  female  tj'pe  which  is  represented  un- 
draped,  a  curious  contrast  to  the  multitude  of  nude  female  statues 
in  modern  art.  The  Amazon  is  indicated  by  the  attire  and  the 
weapons,  etc.  A  very  slight  familiarity  with  the  statues  is  sufficient 
to  the  distinction  of  the  various  types. 

Repetitions  of  Individual  Statues. — Aside  from  the  variations 
within  a  given  type,  we  must  also  note  the  cases  in  which  a  given 
famous  original  was  reproduced  individually  in  hundreds  of  subse- 
quent repetitions.  The  so-called  Marble  Faun  (113)  of  the  Capitol 
Museum  in  Rome  is  a  statue  in  point.  In  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century  there  were  already  thirty-two  statues  in  Rome  of  the  same 
attitude,  all  copies  of  a  lost  original,  probably  by  Praxiteles.  As 
these  statues  were  found  by  chance,  and  as  the  destruction  of 
Antiques  has  been  incomparably  greater  than  the  preservation,  this 
argues  a  much  larger  number  of  copies  of  this  one  original  as 
having  existed  in  ancient  Rome  alone,  to  say  nothing  of  other 
cities.  In  the  same  way,  there  are  a  number  of  repetitions  of  the 
''Apollo  with  the  Lizard"  (112)  in  various  luuseums.  The  Belvedere 
Apollo  is  known  in  three  repetitions — a  head  in  Basle,  which  once 
.belonged  to  an  entire  statue,  and  a  bronze  in  St.  Petersburg,  beside 
the  statue  in  Rome  (118). 

Exceptions  to  the  Typical  Character  of  Greek  Sculpture,  and  to 
its  tendency  to  free  repetition  of  the  same  mythological  subjects, 
are  mainly  of  the  period  of  decadence,  after  the  overthrow  of  the 
independent  Greek  States  (p.  57).  Of  this  class  are  statues  like  the 
so-called  Dying  Gladiator  in  Rome  (12  2).  These  exceptional  cases 
as  to  subject  are  generally  characterized  by  remarkable  science  of 
execution,  but  of  a  more  minute  and  pretentious  character  thiin 
that  usual  in  earlier  Greek  art. 

Designations  of  the  Greek  Divinities.— When  the  Romans  came  under  the  influence  of  the 
Greek  art  and  culture,  their  divinities  were  assimilated  with  those  of  the  Greeks,  and  Latin 
designations  were  applied  to  them.  It  is  by  these  Latin  designations  that  the  Greek  deities  and 
statues  of  deities  have  been  currently  known  in  modern  use.  The  Greek  name  of  Vulcan  was 
Hephaestus ;  of  Venus— Aphrodite  ;  of  Cupid— Eros  ;  of  Bacchus— Dionysus  ;  of  Jupiter— Zeus ;  of 
Juno— Hera ;  of  Mercury— Hermes ;  of  Diana— Artemis ;  of  Minerva— Athene.  Apollo  and  Her- 
cules  were  known  by  these  names  to  the  Greeks  (with  sUghtly  different  spelling). 


95.     "VICTORY"    BY    PiCONIUS,    OLYMPIA. 


w    w 


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I'll  1  n  I  AS.  155 


TYPES    OF    THE   FIFTH    CENTURX-    B.C. 

Historical  Review. — Wo  are  now  x^reparod  to  follow  a  snnimary 
historical  review  of  the  mi)st  quoto(l  Greek  sculptors  and  llie-ir 
works,  as  known  by  later  copies.  The  valnc  of  these  later  copies 
for  this  review,  as  re[)etitions  of  Inst  originals,  is  apparent.  The 
periods  in  question  correspond  to  those  already  indicated  for  the 
orders  of  Greek  Architecture,  to  wliich  periods  reference  should 
now  be  made  (p.  52). 

The  Rapid  Development  of  the  perfect  Greek  art  in  the  5th 
century  B.C.  has  been  already  apparent  in  the  contrast  between  the 
art  dating  about  500  B.C.  and  that  of  thirty  years  later.  The  })er- 
fection  of  this  art  had  its  parallel  in  Greek  literature  and  its  cause 
in  Greek  civilization.  The  victories  of  the  Persian  wars,  dating 
490— iSO  B.C.,  made  the  Greeks  fully  conscious  of  their  own  supe- 
riority to  the  Eastern  civilization,  from  which  their  earlier  art  had 
borrowed  so  much,  and  promoted  an  independent  national  art  ex- 
pression. 

Athens,  as  the  leading  Greek  State  of  this  period,  was  the  center 
of  political  activity  and  of  greatest  wealth.  The  native  artistic 
tendencies  of  its  population  were  headed  b}'  the  genius  of  Phidias 
and  supported  by  the  favorable  disposition  of  the  statesman  Pericles. 

Works  of  Phidias. — Beside  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  already 
noted — probably  the  works  of  scholars  after  models  by  this  artist — 
the  especially  famous  works  of  Phidias  were  his  colossal  Jupiter  in 
the  temple  at  Olympia  and  his  colossal  ]\Iinerva  in  the  Parthenon. 
Both  were  "Chryselephantine,"  that  is.  Avorks  in  gold  and  ivory, 
and  these  were  the  usual  materials  employed  at  this  time  in  similar 
temple  figures.  A  wooden  scaffolding,  or  skeleton  form,  was  first 
erected,  on  which  plates  of  ivory  were  laid  and  joined  to  represent 
the  fiesh.     Gold  was  used  for  the  hair,  draperies,  and  accessories. 

Destruction  of  the  Chryselephantine  Statues. — No  statue  of  this  class  survived 
the  devastations  of  the  otli  century  A.n.  Tlie  antagonism  of  Christianity  was 
as  fatal  to  Greek  art  at  this  time  as  the  ravages  of  the  barbarians,  and  these 
last  were  not  confined  to  Western  Europe,  although  they  were  not  as  lasting  io 
the  East.     (See  the  Restorations  at  25  and  26.) 

Copies  of  Works  by  Phidias. — A  statuette  recently  discovered  at 
Athens  (98)  appears  to  be  a   late  copy  of  the  Parthenon  IMinerva. 


156  POLYCLETUS     AND     MYRON. 

The  later  Minerva  type  in  general,  as  illustrated  by  99,  seems  to 
have  been  founded  by  this  artist.  The  Jupiter  bust  of  the  Vatican, 
known,  from  the  place  of  its  discovery,  as  the  "Otricoli  Jupiter" 
(100),  is  not  thought  to  be  an  exact  copy  of  the  head  of  the 
Olympian  statue,  but  it  is  the  finest  example  of  the  large  number 
of  Jupiter  types  which  date  their  general  conception  from  the 
Jupiter  of  Phidias. 

Works  of  Polycletus. — A  famous  contemporary  of  Phidias  was 
Polycletus.  The  greatest  work  of  this  artist  was  a  colossal  gold  and 
ivory  Juno  (Hera),  made  for  the  temple  at  Argos,  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. The  bust  named  the  Ludovisi  Juno,  from  its  location  in  the 
Ludovisi  Villa  at  Rome,  is  thought  to  be  a  later  copy  from  this 
work  (101).  The  later  Juno  type  in  general  is  related  to  the  epoch- 
making  original. 

The  Type  of  the  Amazon  in  several  variations  dates  from  the 
same  period  of  Greek  art.  The  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  insti- 
tuted a  contest  between  seven  Greek  sculptors  for  the  statue  of  an 
Amazon.  Among  the  sculptors  who  entered  this  contest  are  named 
Phidip^s,  Polycletus,  and  Crosilas.  Polycletus  is  recorded  to  have 
been  the  victor.  The  Amazon  statue  of  the  Capitol  Museum  in 
Rome  (102)  is  a  noted  copy  of  a  work  by  one  of  these  artists,  and 
there  are  a  number  of  repetitions  in  several  variations  which  are 
ascribed  to  originals  dating  from  the  same  contest. 

The  "Doryphorus"  and  the  "  Diadumenus." — Various  copies  are 
extant  of  two  statues  of  athletes  by  Pcjlycletus,  which  are  quoted  by 
ancient  writers — one  of  a  youth  bearing  a  spear,  one  of  a  gymnast 
binding  about  his  head  the  fillet  which  was  the  trophy  of  victory 
in  a  gymnastic  contest.  The  most  noted  copy  of  the  first-mentioned 
statue,  the  "Doryphorus"  (spear-bearer),  is  in  Naples.  One  of  the 
copies  of  the  second  work,  the  "Diadumenus,"  is  in  the  British 
Museum. 

Myron  was  a  contemporary,  but  of  somewhat  earlier  date.  One 
of  his  quoted  statues,  that  of  a  gymnast  throwing  the  discus  (a 
species  of  quoit),  is  known  in  two  copies — one  till  lately  in  the 
Palace  Massimi  at  Rome,  the  other  in  the  Vatican  (103). 

Another  Statue  of  a  Disk-thrower,  known  in  various  copies, 
represents  the  gymnast  as  holding  the  disk  in  an  attitude  just  be- 
fore undertaking  the  throw.  These  copies  are  thought  to  date  from 
an  original  of  the  Phidian  period. 


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PK  AXITKLKS.  iOl 

Traits  of  Greek  Art  of  the  Fifth  Century  B.C. — A  coiiiparisou  of 
the  copies  known  to  date  from  originals  of  the  generation  of  Phidias 
(5th  century  B.C.)  with  one  another  and  with  the  original  archi- 
tectural works  of  the  same  time,  shows  tliat  ility  unite  in  certain 
qualities  of  style.  All  have  a  serious  and  earnest  tendency.  The 
conceptions  especially  affected  are  of  the  most  serious  types  of 
Greek  Mythology — thi'  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva.  The  types  of 
the  Amazons  and  Athletes  have  the  same  serious  and  virile  qualities. 
A  related  taste  appears  in  the  attitudes  and  styles  of  the  sculptures 
of  the  Parthenon  and  of  the  Jupiter  Temple  at  Olympia. 

TYPES    OF    THE    FOURTH    CENTURY  B.C. 

Style  of  the  4th  Century. — As  compared  with  the  above-mentioned 
statues,  the  style  of  the  4th  century  has  a  more  graceful  and  less 
serious  character,  both  in  the  re-treatment  of  subjects  previously 
affected  and  in  the  choice  of  new  ones.  The  names  of  Praxiteles 
and  Scopas  are  especially  famed  in  this  period,  and  the  copies  of 
works  ascribed  to  these  artists  varj'  from  those  just  indicated  as  the 
Ionic  order  differs  from  the  Doric.  The  same  general  historical 
causes  produced  a  change  of  social  conditions  and  of  taste  which 
are  reflected  both  in  scidpture  and  in  arrhitccnire  {[>.   ')2). 

Works  of  Praxiteles. — A  quoted  work  by  Praxiteles,  the  Lizard- 
slaying  Apollo  (Sauroktonos),  is  known  in  a  number  of  copies.  The 
one  illu.strated  is  in  the  Capitol  Museum  at  Rome  (112).  The  play- 
ful conception  and  slender  effeminate  proportions  are  characteristic 
both  of  the  artist  and  of  the  period.  The  relation  of  the  act  repre- 
sented to  the  character  of  Apollo  is  not  clear,  although  the  lizard 
is  known  to  have  been  associated  with  soothsaying  superstitions, 
to  which  the  conception  of  Apollo  was  also  related. 

The  Venus  Type. — Equally  significant  for  the  taste  of  the  -Ith 
century,  and  e(jually  in  contrast  with  the  taste  of  the  5th  century, 
are  the  types  of  Venus  (Aphrodite),  most  of  which,  in  the  countless 
later  copies,  are  more  or  less  connected  with  lost  original  works  by 
Praxiteles  and  Scopas.  The  most  quoted  example  of  the  Venus 
type,  in  the  Louvre,  is  named  from  the  Greek  island  on  which  it 
was  discovered  in  1810 — the  Venus  of  Milo,  or  Melos  (106).  It  was 
made  by  Alexander  of  Antiocheia  on  the  Meander,  2d  century  li.c. 

The   Cupid  (Eros)   types  are  equally  significant  for  th<^  taste  of 


162  PKAXITELES     AND     SCOPAS. 

this  century,  in  contrast  witli  the  style  of  the  Phidian  time.  Again, 
the  names  of  both  Praxiteles  and  Scopas  are  quoted  for  famous 
works,  by  which  the  numerous  Cupids  of  later  antiquity  were  more 
or  less  directly  inspired.  A  Cupid  in  the  Vatican  is  a  well-known 
illustration  (108). 

Type  of  the  Faun. — Praxiteles  was  famed  for  the  statue  of  a 
Faun,  of  which  the  statue  in  the  Capitol  known  as  the  "  Marble 
Faun"  is  generally  conceded  to  have  been  a  copy  (113).  Similar 
graceful  and  playful  tendencies  appear  in  numerous  other  statues 
of  Fauns.  As  regards  execution,  the  "Barberini"  (bar  be  re' ne) 
Faun,  in  Munich,  and  the  Faun  of  the  Borghese  Villa,  are  far 
superior  to  the  so-called  "Marble  Faun."  The  names  of  specific 
artists  are  not  connected  with  these  works. 

The  Bacchus  (Dionysus)  type  (109)  is  also  a  creation  of  this 
period.  The  multitudes  of  statues  of  this  class,  are  only  equaled  in 
number  by  the  Fauns.  As  regards  execution,  the  finest  example  is 
a  torso*  of  the  Naples  Museum.  A  bronze  head  of  the  same  Mu- 
seum has  so  serious  a  character  that  it  is  incorrectly  designated  as 
the  philosopher  Plato.  The  head  of  the  Capitol  Museum,  com- 
monly known  as  "Ariadne,"  is  also  one  of  Bacchus.f  A  fine  group 
in  Florence,  shows  the  god  with  his  attendant,  Ampelus  (personifi- 
cation of  the  Vine). 

Works  of  Scopas. — The  "Niobe  Group,"  in  Florence  (110),  belongs 
to  a  series  of  copies,  the  lost  originals  of  which  are  generally 
ascribed  to  Scopas.  The  myth  of  Niobe  relates  that  she  had  roused 
the  jealousy  of  Apollo  and  Diqna,  and  that  her  children  were  slain 
by  their  arrows.  The  largest  statue  is  that  of  Niobe  endeavoring  to 
protect  her  youngest  daughter  from  the  impending  death.  Other 
statues  show  her  children  in  attitudes  of  flight,  terror,  or  suffering. 
The  location  of  the  original  group  is  uncertain,  and  no  satisfactory 
arrangement  to  correspond  with  the  natural  supposition  that  this 
was  a  temple  gable,  has  been  offered.  Some  arrangement  connected 
with  architecture  appears  certain.  The  copies  were  found  in  Rome. 
A  torso  of  the  Vatican  belongs  to  a  similar  series,  but  is  of  far 
superior  execution  and  a  work  of  Greek  chisel,  possibly  belonging 
to  the  original  group.  The  pathetic  tendencies  apparent  in  this 
group  are  not  exhibited  by  the  Phidian  period. 

*  Torso  is  the  word  used  to  define  tlie  broken  trunk  of  a  statue  without  head  or  limbs, 
t  See  Preiderichs'  "  Bau-steine,"  and  other  authorities.    An  illustration  at  135. 


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ALEXA  X  I-i;  I  XE    SCULPTURE,  169 

An  Apollo  of  the  A'aticaii  playiMg  on  the  lyre,  has  been  classified 
as  the  copy  of  a  work  l)y  Rcopas.     The  attn])iition  is  doubtful  (111). 

The  Mercury  (Hermes)  of  Praxiteles.— In  1»75,  the  German 
exploring  expedition  sent  to  excavate  at  Olynipia,  found  an  authen- 
ticated original  statue  by  Praxiteles,  of  Mercury  holdincr  the  infant 
Bacchus  (HI  his  arm.  This  statue  is  still  at  Olympia.  Two  views  of 
this  fi<,'ure  are  shown  at  9(),  9  7. 

ALEXANDRINE    PERIOD    OF    GREEK    SCULPTURE. 

Correspondence  with  the  History  of  Architecture. — The  sketch  of 
the  history  of  Greek  architecture  has  noted  (p.  5  7)  some  of  the 
conditions  of  Greek  culture  after  the  Macedonian  overthrow  of  the 
independence  of  the  Greek  Republics.  The  Corinthian  order  has 
been  explained  as  a  continuation  of  the  Ionic,  and  the  general 
character  of  its  period  has  been  explained  as  connected  with  ■'the 
expansion  and  diffusion  of  Greek  culture  over  many  foreign  coun- 
tries.   For  the  adjective  "Alexandrine,"  see  p.  5  7. 

Characteristics  of  Alexandrine  Art. — Tt  was  not  a  creative  time 
in  other  respects,  ami  in  sculpture  its  leading  claim  to  attention  is 
that  it  began  to  multiply  and  si^read  the  copies  of  earlier  works  or 
conceptions  borrowed  from  them.  lis  own  independent  productions 
show  generally  a  tendency  to  elaboration  of  detail  in  execution,  to 
the  minutice  of  naturalism  generally  avoided  li\'  the  earlier  Greek 
art,  sometimes  to  a  relatively  pompous  or  theatrical  style,  as  com 
pared  Avith  the  extreme  simplicity  of  the  earlier  Greek  works. 

Connection  with  Greco-Roman  Sculpture. — There  is  no  distinct 
separation  between  the  art  of  the  Alexandrine  time  proper  and  the 
Roman-Greek  art  of  the  Imperial  time.  Direct  influences  of  Greek 
art  at  Rome  were  quite  pronounced  as  early  as  the  2d  century  B.C. 
Works  of  Greek  sculpture  began  to  be  carried  to  Rome  in  great 
numbers  then.  The  p]mpire  itself,  founded  at  a  later  time  (31  B.C.), 
simply  continued  the  civilization  of  the  late  Republi<'.  This  was 
already  that  of  the  Alexandrine  Greeks.  Side  by  side  with  this 
continuation  of  the  Greek  art  rose  the  independent  Roman  sculpt- 
ure of  portraiture.  This,  in  its  turn,  spread  to  Greece  and  the 
Oriental  Greek  countries.  All  territories  of  the  Eiupire  thus  united 
in  producing,  side  by  side,  the  ideal  types  of  the  Greek  Antique  and 
the  realistic  types  of  "Roman"'  portraiture. 


170  ALEXANDRINE     SCULPTURE. 

Works  of  Lysippus.  —  The  name  of  Lysippus  introduces  the 
new  period.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Alexander.  The  colossal 
''Farnese"  Hercules  of  the  Naples  Museum  (117)  is  considered 
a  later  copy  of  a  bronze  by  this  sculptor.  Various  other  typical 
conceptions  of  the  Hercules  do  not,  as  far  as  known,  antedate  his 
time.  The  Athlete  in  the  Vatican,  called  the  Apoxyomenus,  is  copy 
of  a  work  by  this  artist.  The  "  Mars "  of  the  Ludovisi  Villa  prob- 
ably dates,  in  conception,  from  his  period  (116). 

The  "Belvedere"  Apollo  of  the  Vatican  (118)  is  considered  to 
be  the  copy  of  an  Alexandrine  work.  The  pose  shows  more 
calculation  for  striking  effect  than  appears  in  any  statue  known 
to  date  from  an  earlier  time  than  that  of  Alexander.  This 
statue  is  more  celebrated  for  its  striking  pose  and  conception 
than  for  its  execution.  The  arms  are  restored,  and  the  presump- 
tion of  the  restorer  that  the  figure  held  a  bow  has  been  subse- 
quently abandoned. 

Correct  Restoration  of  the  Belvedere  Apollo, — It  is  probable  that  the  left  hand 
held  an  ^gis.  The  ^Egis  was  a  shield  of  goat's  skin,  to  which  was  affixed  the 
head  of  the  Gorgon  or  Medusa,  As  an  emblem  of  the  powers  of  darkness  and 
evil,  the  Gorgon's  head  is  the  trophy  of  the  sun-god  who  triumphed  over  them.  So 
terrible  that  it  turned  to  stone  those  who  gazed  upon  it,  it  was  conceived  also  as 
a  weapon  of  the  god.  The  JEgis  is  also  an  attribute  of  Minerva  and  of  Jupiter, 
divinities  who  also  i^ersonify  the  triumph  of  light  over  darkness.  The  supposition 
that  the  Belvedere  Apollo  held  an  ^-Egis  has  been  suggested  by  a  bronze  statuette 
in  St,  Petersburg,  exactly  corresponding  in  pose  to  this  statue,  and  holding  an 
object  thus  interpreted. 

The  Diana  "of  Versailles,"  now  in  the  Louvre,  is  one  of  the 
many  fine  copies  to  which  no  artist's  name  is  attached  (119),  The 
character  of  pose  and  conception  justify  an  ascription  of  the  original 
to  the  Alexandrine  art. 

The  "Medici"  Venus,  in  Florence  (120),  is  an  original  work  of 
the  2d  century  b,c.  Its  qualities  of  execution  are  far  superior  to 
those  of  the  ordinary  Roman  copies.  The  conception  lacks  the 
ideal  nobility  and  grandeur  of  the  Venus  of  Milo,  The  inscription 
recording  Cleomenes  of  Athens  as  the  artist  is  a  forgery. 

The  "Dying  Gladiator." — A  similar  tendency  to  realism,  but  in 
a  different  vein,  appears  in  the  famous  "Dj'ing  Gladiator"  of  the 
Capitol  (122),  This  statue  is  probably  one  of  a  group  which  w^as 
placed  on  the  Acropolis,  at  Athens,  by  an  Alexandrine  Greek  sever- 


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121.     The  Wrestlers,   Florence. 


laj.     The   "Dying  Gladiator,"  Capitol  Museum. 


123-     LAOCOON    GROUP,   VATICAN. 


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ALEXAM«KINK     SCULPTURE.  ^'7 

eign,  Attains  I.  of  Pergamus.  This  State,  headed  by  the  city  of  the 
same  name  on  tlie  shore  of  Asia  Minor,  had  beer.  involviMl  in  wars 
^vith  the  Galatians  of  interior  Asia  Minor.  These  Galatians,  or 
Gauls,  were  emigrants  of  Celtic  race  alUed  to  the  ancient  inhab- 
itants' of  France.  The  group,  which  was  dedicated  in  commemora- 
tion of  certain  victories,  represented  dead  and  dying  Gallic  warriors. 
Works  hke  this,  of  an  absolutely  tragic  reahsiu,  were  not  created  by 
the  original  Greek  cUt.  The  elaborated  science  of  the  execution  also 
cliaracterizes  the?  period. 

The  Group  of  the  "Farnese"  Bull,  in  The  Naples  ^[useum,  shows 
similar  tragic  and  realistic  tendencies  (124).  The  myth  in  question 
describes  the  punishniL-nt  of  a  jealous  woman  by  the  sons  of  a 
mother  whom  she  had  designated  for  a  like  punishment.  Amphion 
and  Zetheus  bind  Dirce  to  the  horns  of  a  bull.  Th.ir  mother,  An- 
tiope  stands  in  the  background.  The  group  was  found  at  Rome, 
in  the  Baths  of  Caracalla.  It  is  ascribed  t<.  the  Rhodian  School 
of  art  (The  Island  of  Rhodes  rose  to  great  importance  after  Alex- 
ander as  the  center  of  the  grain  trade  between  Egypt  and  the 
Western  Mediterranean.  Its  wealth  and  importance  placed  it  beside 
Alexandria  and  Pergamus.) 

The  Laocoon  Group.-To   Rhodian   artists,  thr   famous   group  of 
the    Laocoon,  in    the  Vatican,  is   also   attributed  (123).     The  aate  of 
this  work  is  in  dispute.    It   is  ascribed  by  some  to  the  3d  century 
Bc    by  others,   to  the   1st   century  a.d.     The  uncertainty  illustrates 
the'  fact  that  where  exact  memoranda  are  wanting,  the  differences 
of  stvle  between  the  Imperial  and  the  Alexandrine  periods   are  not 
distinctive.     The   mvth  represented  by  the   group  is  an  episode  of 
the  Second  Book  of  Virgil's  ".Eneid,"  and  describes  the  destruction 
of  the  Priest  Laocoon  and  of  his  sons  by  serpents.    This  fate  befell 
Laocoon   in    his   effort    to   forestall   the   destruction    of   the   city    of 
Troy     The  essav  on  the  Laocoon  group  by  the  German  critic  Less- 
:ng,  has  been  pronounced  by  competent  authority  (Lord  ^lacaulay), 
"the  greatest  critical  production  of  the  modern  time." 

The  Wrestler  Group,  in  Florence  (121),  may  be  compared  with 
the  Disk-thrower  {Ur.Vy  As  both  are  gymnastic  subjects,  the  com- 
plicated composition  in  the  one  case,  as  contrasted  with  the  simple 
conception  in  the  other,  may  be  fairly  considered  a  significant 
illustration  of  the  Alexandrine  taste,  which  is  known  to  have  pro- 
duced the  Wrestlers. 


178  ALEXANDRINE     SCULPTURE. 

The  Belvedere  Torso. — From  the  large  list  of  famous  Antiques, 
two  more  ma}^  be  selected  as  worthy  of  especial  mention.  Both 
are  quoted  rather  for  the  benefit  of  technical  students  than  for  a 
more  general  interest.  The  "  Belvedere  Torso "  of  the  Vatican,  the 
trunk  of  a  seated  Hercules,  is  considered  by  anatomical  experts  one 
of  the  most  astounding  works  of  ancient  science.  It  was  the  fa- 
vorite study  of  Michael  Angelo.* 

The  "Boxer,"  or  "Fighting  Gladiator"  of  the  Louvre,  is  a  work 
of  similar  anatomical  tendencies.  The  real  meaning  of  this  piece 
is  not  clear.  It  has  been  sometimes  thought  to  be  a  warrior  ward- 
ing off  the  attack  of  a  mounted  soldier,  or  a  copy  of  one  part 
of  a  group  treating  this  subject. 

Periods  of  Greek  Sculpture  Summarized. — The  critic  Winckel- 
mann  (pp  12  9,  130)  was  the  first  to  indicate  the  existence  of  a 
sequence  of  styles  in  Greek  sculpture  according  to  the  outlines 
above  indicated,  and  corresponding  to  changes  of  history  and  na- 
tional taste.  As  appears  by  the  grouping  of  Illustrations  98-103, 
inclusive,  with  which  88,  89,  90,  95,  should  be  associated,  the  style 
of  the  5th  century  was  one  of  severity,  sublimity,  and  grandeur,  or 
of  serious  and  earnest  character.  As  appears  by  grouxDing  of  Illus-_ 
trations  104-113,  inclusive,  with  which  91,  92,  96  should  be  asso- 
ciated, the  style  of  the  -ith  century  was  one  of  beauty,  elegance, 
and  grace.  The  simplicity,  dignity,  and  repose  of  attitude  and  con- 
ception in  both  these  styles  are  very  apparent.  As  explained  at 
pp.  12  9,  130,  Winckelmann  was  the  first  to  call  attention  by  pub- 
lication to  these  traits.  He  was  also  the  first  to  contrast  with  this 
simplicity  the  more  pretentious  style,  in  conception  and  execution, 
of  certain  groups  and  statues  (114-124,  inclusive,  with  which  93 
may  be  associated)  of  the  Alexandrine  period,  and  to  show  that 
it  marked  the  relative  decadence  in  taste  of  this  over-opulent  and 
luxurious  era.  He  was  also  the  first  to  show  that  the  Alexandrine 
and  Greco-Roman  art  was  mainly  devoted  to  the  repetition  and 
reproduction  of  earlier  types. 

*  By  inscription,  the  work  of  Apollonii:s  of  Athens,  not  otherwise  known  to  fame. 
For   the   origin   of   the   titles    "Belvedere,"    "Farnese,"    and    "Medici,"   applied   to   varioiis 
Antiques,  see  p.  112. 


124. 


"FARNESE"  BULL   GROUP,  NAPLES. 


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125.     THE  COLUMN    OF   TRAJAN,    ROME. 


ROME. 

ROMAN    HISTORICAL    AND    PORTRAIT    SCULPTURE. 

Historical  Subjects,  as  -well  as  portraits,  were  generally  avoided 
by  the  Greeks.  In  the  production  of  liistorical  reliefs,  the  Romans 
thus  departed  from  the  habits  of  the  Greek  art  which  they  other- 
wise borrowed  and  imitated.  Some  few  of  these  reliefs  are  espe- 
cially interesting ;  for  example,  those  on  the  inner  walls  of  the  Arch 
of  Titus,  which  represent  the  "Triumph"  of  this  Emperor  after  his 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.  In  one  of  them  is  represented  the 
**  Seven-branched  Candlestick,"  which  was  carried  off  from  the  Jew- 
ish temple  by  the  Roman  soldiers  (127).  The  spiral  relief  on  the 
column  of  the  Emperor  Trajan,  in  Rome,  gives  a  pictorial  histoiy 
of  his  campaigns  in  Dacia  (Soutlicrn  Hungary).     (12  5.) 

Roman  Portraits. — In  tli<'  lidd  of  Roman  portraits,  the  list  of 
honorable  mention  would  be  as  long  as  the  list  of  Emperors  and 
great  men  of  the  Imperial  period.  Corresponding  to  the  general 
decline  of  culture  in  later  antiquity,  there  is  a  gradual  falling  off  in 
qualities  of  refinement  and  of  careful  execution  during  the  2d  cent- 
ury B.C.,  and  yet  the  latest  Roman  portraits  have  value  as  faithful 
and  characteristic  works.  The  illustrations  chosen  show  the  char- 
acteristic Roman  indifference  to  ideal  beauty,  and  the  blunt  ren- 
dering of  actual  appearance,  common  to  all  their  portraits  (128-133). 

Roman  Copies  of  Greek  Works. — It  should  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  copies  already  ([noted  ;ind  illustrated,  by  which  we  learn 
to  know  the  earlier  Greek  originals,  ari'  maiidy  productions  of  the 
Roman  Imperial  time.    See,  for  instance,  135. 

The  Antinoiis  Type. — During  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian 
(2d  century  a.d.),  a  combination  of  Greek  ideality  with  Roman  por- 
trait art  is  found  in  the  portrait  statues  of  his  favorite,  Antinoiis. 
After  the  death  of  Antinoiis,  the  devotion  of  Hadrian  and  the 
adulation  of  the  Emperor's  subjects  multiplied  these  portraits  ill 
such  numbers,  that  they  form  a  definite  type  of  Antique  art  (136). 


182  B.C3£AN    SCULPTUFS. 

After  and  during  the  Second  Century  A.D.,  the  Antique  sculpt- 
ure declined  rapidly.  The  reliefs  (from  Greek  myths)  decorating 
the  stone  sarcophagi  (ccf£ns)  are  the  most  numerous  and  most 
interesting  works  of  the  2d  and  Sd  centuries.  In  the  4th  century 
A.D,,  the  triumph  of  Christianity,  and  its  then  acquired  control  of 
the  Roman  State,  gave  the  last  blow  to  the  waning  forces  of  the 
Antique  art. 

Meaning  of  the  Word  "Roman," — In  speaking  of  "Eoman"  sculpture,  it  is  well 
to  remember  that  the  word  defines  the  time  and  territory  of  the  Empire  rather 
than  the  art  of  a  Roman  race  or  nationality.  One  half  the  Imperial  territories 
were  countries  in  which  a  Greek  culture  had  been  dominant  since  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander, and  this  culture  had  spread  to  the  other  "Eoman"  territories  (pp.  57-61). 


NOTES    ON"    THE    ILLirSTRATIONS    FOR    GREEK    AND    GRECO-ROMAH 

SCULPTURE. 

(80-137,  inclusive.) 

Xos.  80,  85  (pp.  141,  142)  represent  the  archaic  period  of  Greek  art  down  to  a 
time  closing  about  500  B.C.  Xo.  87  represents  the  ti^ansition  to  the  perfected  art 
after  -470  B.C. 

ISTos.  87-94  represent  original  Greek  sculpture  for  architectural  decoration. 

Xos.  95-97  represent  original  Greek  statues  by  distinguished  sculptors  of 
recent  discovery. 

Xos.  98-103  (pp.  157-160)  are  typical  pieces  for  the  style  and  conceptions  of 
Greek  sculpture  in  the  5th  century  B.C.  All  of  them  are  individually  later  copies 
by  individually  unknown  artists. 

Xos.  104-113  (pp.  163-168)  are  typical  pieces  for  the  style  and  conceptions  of 
Greek  sculptux'e  in  the  4th  century  B.C.,  before  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
All  of  them  are  indi\-idualh-  later  copies  and,  excepting  106,  by  individually  un- 
known artists. 

Xos.  114-124  (pp.  171-179)  are  t\-pical  pieces  for  the  style  and  conceptions  of 
the  Alexandrine  and  Greco-Eoman  art. 

Xos.  127,  134,  137  illustrate  the  class  of  Eoman  historical  reliefs — a  class  of 
subjects  not  treated  by  Greek  sculpture.  The  Arch  of  Titus  is  shown  in  text-cut  at 
p.  122.  Xos.  126,  12S-133,  and  136  represent  the  Eoman  portrait  art.  A  certain 
number  of  Greek  portrait  statues  or  busts  are  known,  but  they  are  exceptional  cases. 


lj6.     Onyx  Cameo,  Vienna.     Emperor  Claudius  and  his  wife,  Agrippina  the  Younger,     His  uncle 
Tiberius  and  his  mother  Livia. 


ij;.     Relief  from  the  Arch  of  Titus. 


ROMAN    PORTRAIT    BUSTS. 


X28.     Tibpriws,    >/?wirar.  i2q.     Caligula,  Vatican.  130.     Scipio  Africanus,   bronze,  Naples. 

131.     Nero,  Vatican.  132.     Hadrian,  Vatican. 


133.     STATUE    OF   AUGUSTUS,    VATICAN. 


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137.   FROM  THE  DESTROYED  TRIUMPHAL  ARCH  OF  THE  EMPEROR   MARCUS  AURELI  JS» 

The  Ejn^eror  grants  terms  of  peace  to  conquered  Germans, 


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THE   MIDDLE   AGE. 

BYZANTINE  AND   MEDIEVAL   SCULPTURE. 

The  Connecting'  Link  between  Antique  and  early  Christian 
sculpture  is  found  in  the  stone  sarcophagi  just  mentioned.  Some 
of  the  ancient  myths  commonly  represented  on  sarcophagi  were 
susceptible  of  Christian  interpretation  ;  for  instance,  those  relating 
to  Psyche  (the  Soul),  and  the  decoration  of  the  stone  coffins  with 
Scriptural  subjects  was,  of  course,  an  admissible  branch  of  Chris- 
tian art. 

Christian  Antagonism  to  Pagan  Art. — Although  Christianity  first 
developed  within  the  limits  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  had  existed 
in  it  since  the  time  of  the  first  Emperors,  its  antagonism  to  ancient 
art  was  almost  absolute.  This  antagonism  is  explained  by  the 
subjects  which  ancient  art  affected.  As  these  were  representations 
of  Pagan  beliefs,  the  early  Christians  found  themselves  in  bitter 
opposition  both  to  these  beliefs  and  to  their  external  representations 
in  art.  The  main  field  of  Greco-Roman  sculpture  was  the  Greco- 
Roman  Mythology,  and  thus  the  art  of  sculpture  was  destroyed  in 
the  downfall  of  Paganism.  The  statues  of  Pagan  divinities  were 
melted  when  they  were  of  metal,  broken  up  when  of  stone,  or 
burned  in  the  lime-kilns  if  they  were  of  marble.  It  was  impossible 
to  accomplish  this  wholesale  destruction  without  detriment  to  the 
art  of  design,  and  this  did  not  recover  itself  entirely  until  the 
Italian  Renaissance.  The  sarcophagus  represented  at  138  (with  re- 
liefs of  the  Story  of  the  Passion)  is  a  fair  type  of  the  short-comings 
of  early  Christian  art  during  many  centuries.  As  noted  under  the 
history  of  architecture  (p.  81),  Christianity  became  the  favored 
religion  of  the  Roman  State  soon  after  the  opening  of  the  4th 
century  a.d.,  and  Pagan  worship  was  made  illegal  at  the  close  of 
the  same  century.  It  was,  therefore,  in  the  4th  century  that  the 
Christian  destruction  of  Pagan  art  was  mainly  accomplished.  The 
ravages  of  the  German  invasions  in  the  5th  century  (p.  81)  com- 
pleted this  destruction. 


190  BYZANTINE     SCULPTURE. 

Christian  Art  Affected  by  Decline  of  the  Antique. — Before  this 
active  destruction,  which  was  so  detrimental  to  the  arts  of  design, 
the  Antique  sculpture  and  art  in  general,  had  entered  its  period  of 
decay.  This  decline  of  ancient  sculpture  Avas  one  result  of  the 
waning  moral  and  physical  forces  of  Antiquity  in  its  dotage  and 
old  age.  But  above  all,  the  decline  of  the  Empire  and  of  its  art  is 
ex]3lained  by  the  expansion  of  its  civilization.  Such  immense  num- 
bers of  foreign  tribes  were  brought  under  its  influence,  both  within 
and  without  the  geographical  boundaries,  that  they  ultimately  re- 
duced this  civilization  almost  to  the  level  of  their  own  barbarism. 
This,  at  least,  was  the  condition  of  Western  Europe  for  some  time 
after  the  5th  century  a.d. 

In  the  Byzantine  Countries  (pp.  81,  82),  this  barbaric  influence 
is  not  in  question,  and  we  must  look  to  the  spirit  of  early  Chris- 
tianity for  the  essential  explanation  of  the  nature  of  their  art. 
Antiquity,  especially  in  its  later  days,  had  found  its  ideals  of  hap- 
piness in  the  well-being  and  beauty  of  the  bodily  form.  Christianity 
was  inspired  by  the  consciousness  of  a  conflict  between  the  flesh 
and  the  spirit.  It  could  not  exalt  the  former  without  detriment  to 
the  latter,  as  long  as  the  physical  and  unspiritual  stand-point  of 
"^agan  antiquity  continued  to  have  influence  in  the  world. 

Influence  of  Mosaic  Decoration  on  Design. — The  history  of  me- 
dieval sculpture  is,  therefore,  for  many  centuries,  rather  a  blank 
than  even  an  account  of  deflciencies.  As  will  appear  in  the  history 
of  painting,  the  art  of  mosaic  decoration  in  glass,  which  was  used 
for  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  churches  (see  also  p.  Ul),  influenced 
the  minor  and  less  practiced  arts  of  design,  including  sculpture. 
The  set,  stiff  formulas  of  mosaic  design  repeat  themselves  in  the 
elongated  forms  and  lifeless  execution  of  the  scanty  sculptural 
works.  Sculpture  sank  mainly  to  the  level  of  decorative  carving, 
but  in  this  fleld  produced  many  beautiful  works. 

The  Period  of  Absolute  Decadence,  as  characterized  by  Nos.  138 
and  140,  lasted  from  the  -Ith  to  the  13th  century.  In  its  earlier 
time  it  is  relieved  by  a  survival  of  Antique  beauty  in  some  of  the 
ivory  carvings  (No.  139),  book-covers  and  writing  tablets  especially. 
At  a  later  period  of  this  decadence,  Byzantine  art  experienced  a 
partial  revival,  which  has  only  in  the  last  few  years  attracted  the 
attention  of  students.  In  spite  of  this  x)artial  revival,  the  bronze 
doors  of  certain  cathedrals,  which  were  monuments  of  the  best  effort 


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139.     IVORY    DIPTYCH    AT   MONZA. 


.,  Oalla  Placidia  and  her  son,  Valentinian  III.     Fifth  Century. 

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140.     IVORY    TABLET    IN   THE    HOTEL   CLUNY,   PARIS. 
Emperor  Otto  II.  and  wife,  Theophano,  blessed  by  Christ.,  Tenth  Century. 


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MEDIEVAL     SCULPTURE.  195 

of  the  11th   and    12  th   centuries,  are  characterized  by  absokite  bar- 
barism of  design. 

The  Revival  of  Sculpture  in  the  13th  century  finds  its  earliest 
monuments  in  France  and  Germany,  in  the  cathedral  sculptures ; 
especially  those  of  Rheims  and  of  Chartres  in  France,  and  of 
Freiberg  (Saxony)  in  Germany.  Throughout  the  Gothic  period  in 
Northern  Europe  (Wells  Cathedral  in  England,  and  elsewhere),  there 
are  many  monuments  of  sculpture  interesting  for  their  fresh  and 
innocent  character  and  for  spiritual  beauty.  These  are  almost  uni- 
versally of  an  architectural  and  decorative  character.  The  immense 
amount  of  sculptured  decorations  usual  in  the  later  Gothic  cathe- 
drals, was  often  detrimental  to  the  perfection  of  individual  pieces. 
In  many  localities,  the  earlier  medieval  ignorance  of  design  and 
indifference  to  the  study  of  the  human  form  continued  through  the 
Gothic  period,  and  were  not  overcome  till  the  time  of  the  influence 
of  the  Italian  Revival  (pp.  13,  117)  over  Northern  Europe. 

REVIVAL   OF   SCULPTURE   IN   ITALY. 

Importance  of  the  Italian  Revival. — Although  dating  also  in  Italy 
from  the  13th  century,  the  revival  here  was  later  than  in  France 
or  Germany,  but  it  has  always  attracted  more  attention  because  its 
subsequent  development  in  the  works  of  Ghiberti  and  Michael  An- 
gelo  far  surpassed  any  thing  produced  by  Northern  Europe. 

Nicolo  of  Pisa.  —  The  revival  in  Italy  is  connected  with  the 
name  and  work  of  a  single  artist,  Nicolo  of  Pisa.  His  most 
famous  work  is  the  marble  pulpit  of  the  Baptistery  in  Pisa  (Nc 
144),  dating  from  the  third  quarter  of  the  13th  century  (12  60). 
A  less  quoted  but  also  beautiful  work  by  the  same  artist,  is  the 
pulpit  of  the  Siena  Cathedral.  These  pulpits  are  unique  monu- 
ments. Aside  from  a  pulpit  in  Pistoja  (pes  to' ya)  by  Nicolo's  son, 
Giovanni  (jo  van'  e),  and  a  now  destroyed  pulpit  of  the  Pisa  Cathe- 
dral, nothing  of  the  same  character  or  quality  was  subsequently 
accomplished.    Details  of  the  Pisa  Baptistery  pulpit  at  145,  146. 

Influence  of  the  Antique. — The  citizens  of  Pisa  were  among  the 
earliest  to  cultivate  that  interest  in  antiquity  which  afterward  grew 
into  the  Renaissance.  Their  enthusiasm  led  them  to  collect  the 
sculptured  coffins  of  the  Greco-Roman  art,  and  the  art  of  Nicolo 
was  inspired  by  antique  reliefs  still  shown  in  Pisa. 


196  MEDIEVAL     SCULPTURE. 

Italian  Sculpture  in  the  14th  Century. — Nicole's  son,  GTiovanni, 
did  not  reach  the  distinction  of  his  father,  but  was  a  superior  artist 
for  his  time.  Other  Pisan  sculptors  produced  interesting  works 
during  the  1-ith  century.  Andrea  Pisano  (peesah'no)  is  a  leading 
name  (bronze  door  of  the  Florence  Baptistery).  The  reliefs  of  the 
Florence  Campanile  (p.  116),  from  designs  by  the  painter  Giotto 
(jot'o),  are  of  classic  reputation.  In  general,  however,  the  art  of 
sculpture  subsided  into  comparative  quiescence  or  neglect  during 
the  llrth  century  in  Italy.  This  was  the  period  of  the  first  devel- 
opment of  Italian  painting,  and  this  art  more  especial  y  absorbed 
the  interest  of  the  time. 

The  Renaissance  in  Sculpture. — Notwithstanding  the  quiescen  e  of  Ttahan 
dcuipture  in  the  14th  century,  it  attained  the  full  perfection  of  modern  art  in  the 
century  following.  The  later  modern  sculptiu^e  has  never  subsequently  rivaled 
the  Italian  works  of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries.  From  the  point  of  view  which 
considers  all  modern  civilization  as  a  development  of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  and 
which  unites  the  15th,  16th,  17th,  18th,  and  19th  centuries  in  one  single  period, 
having  its  starting-point  in  Italy,  there  is  nothing  surprising  ia  this  early  perfec- 
tion of  modern  sculpture.  For  a  definition  of  the  "Renaissance,"  and  for  the 
inspiration  and  tendencies  of  its  historical  movement,  see  pp.  117-126,  where  the 
history  of  modern  architecture  is  shown  to  have  been  dependent  on  it  (see,  also, 
p.  13).  The  Antique  influences  apparent  in  Renaissance  architecture  were  no  less 
prominent  in  the  art  of  sculpture,  and  were  equally  connected  with  that  Itahan 
interest  in  the  ancient  classic  languages  and  history,  which  was  the  most  remark- 
able feature  of  Italian  culture  in  the  15th  century. 

Distinction  between  the  Renaissance  and  the  Greek  Revival. — It  is  important  to 
'understand  that  the  remains  of  ancient  art  in  Italj^  were  not  the  less  enthu- 
siastically studied  because  there  was  a  mistaken  theory  as  to  their  origin  (p.  117). 
The  virtues  of  the  ancient  art  were  credited  to  the  Romans  rather  than  to  the 
Greeks,  but  they  were  not  on  that  account  the  less  admired.  No  attention  was 
paid,  it  is  true,  to  those  aspects  of  the  Antique  Greek  art  which  were  first  insisted 
on  by  Winckelmann.  The  Italian  interest  of  the  Renaissance  was  centered  I'ather 
on  the  technical  perfection  of  execution  and  natural  appearance.  By  contrast 
wicn  the  barbarism  of  medieval  design  still  general  in  Northern  Europe  (p.  197), 
ali  ancient  statues  were  revelations  v^f  an  interest  in  beauty  and  nature  which  the 
Italians  were  struggling  to  revive.  It  was  especially  this  interest  in  nature  and 
in  the  beauty  of  the  human  form  which  was  the  bond  of  sympathy  between  the 
art  of  the  Renaissance  and  that  of  the  ancients. 


144- 


PULPIT   IN    THE    PISA    BAPTISTERY.      NICOLO    PISANO.     Thirteenth    Century. 


145-     Nicolo  Pisano.     The  Nativity.     Detail  of  144. 


i/fi      Nicolo  Pisano.     Adoration  of  the  Magi.     Detail  of  144. 


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147.     ANDREA  DELLA  ROBBIA.     ,^    :       '  ^;\  ",*.,"■.,..    .*. 
Enameled  Relief.     Coronation  of  the  Virgin.     Fifts'erri'ib' i^cn&ryv,,'  * '•    "      ,  *   "•* 


iiliisiiiiiyiiiiiililM  ■ 


149.     EQUESTRIAN    STATUE    OF    GUATAMALATA,    BY   DONAT   ,i.XO.     PADUA. 


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ITALIAN  RENAISSANCE. 

15TH    CENTURY   SCULPTURE. 

The  Bronze  Doors  of  the  Florence  Baptistery,  by  Lorenzo 
Ghiberti  (ge  ber'  te),  are  the  epoch-making  works  of  modern 
sculpture  (No.  148).  Not  begun  till  after  l-iOO,  not  finished 
till  after  1450,  the  gap  between  them  and  the  work  of  Kicolo 
covers  nearly  two  centuries.  The  door  by  Andrea  Pisano  has  been 
mentioned ;  there  are  two  by  G-hiberti.  The  one  most  quoted  is 
that  illustrated.  The  illustrations  of  these  designs  are  more  elo- 
quent than  description  could  be.  A  curious  feature  is  the  absence 
of  related  works  of  even  approximate  perfection.  Similar  bronze 
doors  Avere  not  again  attempted  in  Italy  till  the  Italian  decadence 
(p.  121)  had  set  in,  Ot  this  later  time  are  the  doors  of  the  Pisa 
Cathedral,  by  John  of  Bologna. 

Luca  della  Robbia. — During  the  15th  century,  the  Florentine 
sculptors  were  by  far  the  most  noted  of  all  Europe.  Most  of  them 
were  assistants  of  Ghiberti  in  the  work  on  the  doors  in  question. 
Luca  della  Robbia  (look'  a  del'  la  rob'  e  a)  is  famed  for  his  reliefs 
of  a  marble  choir  railing  for  the  Florence  Cathedral,  which  was 
never  placed  in  position,  but  which  is  still  preserved  in  Florence. 
This  artist  devoted  himself  especially  to  the  designing  of  reliefs  in 
enameled  terra-cotta,  and  this  art  was  continued  after  his  death 
by  other  members  of  his  family.  The  secrets  of  the  family  manu- 
facture perished  with  its  last  member.  The  works  of  ''Robbia" 
ware  are  spread  all  over  Tuscany.  They  are  inainly  altar-pieces 
and  lunettes*  for  architectural  decoration  (147).  There  is  a  fine 
Robbia  altar-piece  in  the  Art  Museum  of  New  York. 

Donatello  was  another  famous  1 5th  century  Florentine.  Lack- 
ing the   tendencies  of  Ghiberti   and   of  Luca   della  Robbia  toward 

*  liUnettes  are  the  curved  spaces  arranged  above  the  top  straight  beam  of  a  door. 


204  RENAISSANCE     SCULPTURE. 

ideal  beauty,  he  is  distinguished  by  nervous  vigor  and  by  honest 
veracity  of  design.    His  most  noted  work  is  shown  at  149. 

The  Florentine  Verocchio  (varok'yo)  had  a  related  character, 
tending  sometimes  to  an  appearance  of  quaintness  by  the  rigor  and 
sincerity  of  his  effort.  A  noted  work  at  150.  PoUajuolo  (p6l  ah- 
you  o'  lo)  was  a  Florentine  of  similar  tendencies. 

Mino  da  Fiesole  (mee'  no  da  fe  a'  so  la)  and  Desiderio  da  Setti- 
gnano  (set  in  yah' no),  of  the  later  15th  century,  are  known  for  reliefs 
of  Madonnas,  etc.,  of  peculiar  purity  of  sentiment. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci  (laonar'do  da  vin'che).  —  The  connecting 
link  between  the  studies  of  these  sculptors  and  those  of  Michael 
Angelo,  in  sequence  of  time,  was  furnished  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
but  there  are  no  preserved  works  of  sculpture  by  this  artist.  A 
colossal  equestrian  statue  of  his  i^atron,  the  Duke  of  Milan,  was 
twice  completed  in  model,  but  these  models  were  destroyed  before 
casting  in  bronze.  One  of  them  was  probably  destroyed  by  acci- 
dent, the  other  by  the  French  invaders  of  Milan  in  1499. 

16TH   CENTURY   ITALIAN   RENAISSANCE. 

MICHAEL    ANGELO    (1475-1564.) 

Early  Works. — Michael  Angelo  was  born  near  Florence,  in  1475, 
and  grew  up  as  a  native  of  that  city  and  Republic.  Although  dis- 
tinguished as  architect  (p.  118)  and  painter,  his  original  and  peculiar 
profession  was  that  of  sculpture.  Ghiberti  and  Donatello  were  his 
models.  The  earliest  work  of  the  artist's  youth,  a  Faun's  mask,  is 
still  preserved  in  Florence.  The  much  quoted  Cupid,  his  next  effort, 
which  was  buried  and  then  sold  as  an  Antique,  has  disappeared, 
(Other  Cupids  by  Michael  Angelo — one  in  the  South  Kensington. 
Museum  of  London  and  one  in  Turin — are  of  later  date.)  He 
next  executed,  1494,  an  Angel  for  the  tomb  of  St.  Domenic,  in 
Bologna,  still  to  be  seen  in  that  city.  The  "Bacchus"  of  the  Flor- 
ence Uffizi  dates  from  the  year  1494. 

The  Piet^. — In  1499  was  finished  the  group  of  the  Virgin  hold- 
ing the  dead  Saviour,  now  in  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome  (156).  The 
technical  Itahan  name  for  this  subject  is  Pietd  (pee  a  tahO. 

The  Colossal  Statue  of  "David,"  in  Florence  (151),  was  set 
up  in  1504.  A  year  later,  Michael  Angelo  went  to  Rome  to  under- 
take  the  future  tomb  of  the  then  reigning  Pope  Julius  II. 


tjo.  EQUESTRIAN  STATUE  OF  COLLEONI,  BY  VEROCCHIO.  VENICE, 


J    J  -^  , 


jBJ>    4      =»»> 


r'J 


151.     MICHAEL   ANGELO.     DAVID.     FLORENCE. 


152.     Michael  Angelo.     "The  Day."     Florence. 
,33.     Michael  Angelo.     "  The  Night."     Florence. 


V     »  0       '    < 


154.     MICHAEL   ANGELO.     MOSES,     ROME. 


MICHAEL     ANGELO.  20b 

The  "Moses." — He  began,  as  part  of  this  monument,  the  statue 
of  "Moses"  (154),  which  was  not  finished  till  forty  years  later. 

In  1507  he  finished  a  bronze  statue  of  Julius  II.  for  the  town 
of  Bologna,  which  was  destroyed  during  a  revolt  in  this  town  a  few 
years  later. 

After  this  time,  from  1508  to  1512,  he  was  engaged  on  the 
ceiling  frescoes  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  to  be  subsequently  noticed. 

The  Two  "  Captives,"  now  in  the  Louvre,  were  finished  before 
or  about  1513  (illustrations  155  and  157).  They  belong  to  a 
design  for  the  tomb  of  Julius  II.,  which  was  abandoned  after  the 
Pope's  death.  The  statues  were  originally  intended  for  an  allegor- 
ical series,  representing  the  arts  and  sciences  as  held  captive  by 
the  Pope,  and  expiring  with  him.  The  date  of  the  "Madonna"  in 
Bruges  is  uncertain — the  same  holds  of  the  "Adonis,"  in  Florence. 

Tombs  of  the  Medici. — No  important  sculpture  commission  was 
undertaken  after  this  time  until  1519,  when  the  "Tombs  of  the 
Medici"  (may' dUchy),  in  Florence,  were  undertaken  (details  at 
152,  153),  but  the  work  on  these  was  so  deferred  that  the  comple- 
tion of  the  groups  was  not  undertaken  till  1530,  and  not  finished 
till  1534.*  These  tombs  are  in  a  chapel  of  the  Church  of  San 
Lorenzo,  in  Florence. 

The  commission  for  the  picture  of  the  "Last  Judgment,"  in  the 
Sistine  Chapel,  was  undertaken  in  1534,  and  finished  in  1542,  as 
mentioned  later.  In  1546  Michael  Angelo  was  made  architect  of  St 
Peter's.     The  building  had  been  begun  in  1506  (p.  118). 

In  1545  he  finished  the  colossal  "Moses"  (154),  the  greatest  of 
his  works — which  forms  the  most  important  portion  of  the  tomb  of 
Julius  II.,  in  the  Church  of  San  Pietro  in  Vinculi  (peeay'tro  in 
vin'quly),  at  Rome. 


Contrast  between  the  Art  of  Michael  Angelo  and  the  Antique. — The  foregoing 
list  includes  the  more  imjoortant  statues  by  Michael  Angelo,  excepting  the  statue 
of  the  Saviour  in  Santa  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  in  Rome  (1521).  They  are  at  once 
monuments  of  his  individual  genius  and  of  the  greatness  of  his  period  (see  matter 
for  the  "  Renaissance,"  p.  196).  The  influence  of  the  ancient  statues,  which  began 
at  this  time  to  be  excavated  from  the  ancient  ruins,  was  an  important  element  in 
Michael  Angelo's  studies,  but  he  was  most  attracted  by  those  Antiques  which 
coincided  with  the  realistic  tastes  of  his  own  time,  especially  the  "Belvedere 
Torso,"  the  "  Laocoon,"  and  the  "Dying  Gladiator "  (pp.  170-178).    The  realism  of 

*  They  were  never  quite  finished. 


210  KENAISSANCE     SCULPTURE. 

Renaissance  Italian  sculpture  is  in  strong  contrast  with  the  idealizing  tendeucies 
of  the  Greek  Antique.  Each  method  was  best  for  the  time  which  chose  it.  The 
Greek  statues  which  represented  personifications  rather  than  persons,  could  not 
imitate  literally  an  individual  form  without  losing  their  ideal  meaning.  The 
statues  of  the  Renaissance  Italians  were  vigorous  studies  of  individual  models,  and 
did  not  pretend  to  be  more.  Statues  were  a  natural  expression  of  Greek  religious 
beliefs  and  Greek  ideals  of  culture,  and  hence  their  ideal  form  corresponded  to  an 
ideal  meaning,  but  with  the  Italians  they  were  one  phase  of  the  re-awakened 
interest  in  nature  and  in  natural  form  which  succeeded  to  the  medieval  civilization. 
And  this  realism  is  the  spirit  which  makes  them  interesting  as  works  of  modern 
art,  and  as  foils  and  contrasts  to  the  Antique. 

The  Influence  of  Italian  Renaissance  Sculpture  spread  over 
Northern  Europe,  together  with  its  style  of  architecture  and  its  Ht- 
erary  taste.  It  followed  the  same  course  as  regards  the  decadence  of 
the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  and  for  shnilar  reasons  (pp.  121-12  5). 
It  was  antagonized  by  the  Winckelmann  Revival  (p.  130),  at  the 
close  of  the  18th  century,  just  as  the  Greek  Temple  style  sought  to 
overthrow  the  Renaissance  in  architecture  (p.  15),  but  with  much 
greater  success. 

Without  attempting  to  enumerate  many  names  and  works  of  the 
Renaissance,  or  of  its  Northern  development,  which  would  lead  to 
confusion  as  to  the  simple  fundamental  facts,  the  following  are 
Avorthy  of  special  distinction. 

Sansovino  (san  so  ve'  no),  contemporary  of  Michael  Angelo.  The 
bronze  doors  of  the  sacristy  of  St.  Mark's,  at  Venice,  are  a  much 
quoted  and  characteristic  work. 

Benvenuto  Cellini  (benvanoo'to  chel  lee' ne),  the  famous  Flor- 
entine goldsmith  and  sculptor,  was  born  twenty-five  years  later 
than  Michael  Angelo.  His  great  Avork,  the  "Perseus,"  in  Florence, 
is  characteristic  for  the  middle  portion  of  the  16th  century  (158). 

John  of  Bologna,  a  Fleming  of  Italian  education,  is  the  leading 
name  in  Italy  for  the  later  portion  of  the  16th  century.  His  "Rape 
of  the  Sabines,"  in  Florence,  is  an  important  work.  His  "Fljang 
Mercury,"  in  Florence,  has  been  made  familiar  by  many  modern 
repetitions  (160.) 

i6th  Century  Renaissance  in  Northern  Europe. — Germany  slightly 
preceded  France,  in  time,  in  the  development  of  a  national  Renais- 
sance style.  Peter  Vischer,  in  Germany  (Tomb  of  St.  Sebald,  in  Nurem- 
berg, 163),  and  Jean  Goujon,  in  France  ("Diana,"  in  the  Louvre), 
are  leading  names.    A  characteristic  work,  by  Germain  Pilon  (159), 


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i63.     PETER    FISHER.     TOMB    OF    ST.  SEBALD.     NUREMBERG. 


RENAISSANCE     SCULPTURE.  215 

has  been  chosen  as  illustration  for  this  French  art  developed  from 
the  Italian  Renaissance.  The  Italian  influences  in  England  are 
attested  and  illustrated  by  the  tomb  of  Henry  VIIL,  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  by  the  Florentine  Torrigiano  (tor  ej  a' no). 

17TH    CENTURY   RENAISSANCE    SCULPTURE. 

Bernini. — The  name  of  the  Italian  Bernini  (ber  ne'ne)  is  the 
most  important  for  this  period,  but  his  style  is  that  of  countless 
contemporaries.  This  style  had  lost  the  masculine  character  of  the 
16th  century.  It  is  theatrical,  affected,  overstrained,  and  senti- 
mental. Compare  his  Pieta  (162)  with  that  of  Michael  Angelo 
(156),  observing  that  the  cherubs  over  the  latter,  in  photographs, 
are  a  later  addition.  Bernini's  style  is  also  realistic  to  that  extreme 
which  contradicts  reality  of  effect  by  unnatural  imitations  in  one 
material  of  the  texture  and  surface  of  another.  Bernini,  like  many 
other  artists  of  his  time,  was  a  man  of  great  genius,  but  from  the 
statuesque  stand-point  his  works  have  met  general  condemnation 
since  the  time  of  Winckelmann.  His  group  of  "  Apollo  and  Daphne  " 
(161),  in  the  Borghese  Villa,  at  Rome,  is  another  characteristic 
work.  (Daphne,  to  escape  the  pursuit  of  Apollo,  transforms  herself 
into  a  laurel  tree.) 

In  Germany,  the  name  of  Andreas  Schliiter  (schle^v'  ter)  marks 
an  exceptional  artist  for  such  a  period.  His  statue  of  the  "Great 
Elector,"  in  Berlin,  is  universally  quoted  as  a  successful  and 
serious  work. 

18TH   CENTURY   SCULPTURE. 

Before  Winckelmann.  —  Before  the  Winckelmann  revival  this 
century  continued  in  the  lines  of  the  preceding  time,  but  with  still 
inferior  force.  The  straining  and  overstraining  for  effect  is  a  constant 
trait  of  the  period.  Some  of  its  most  remarkable  works,  as  regards 
technical  execution,  are  wanting  in  every  quality  of  good  taste. 

After  Winckelmann. — In  external  repose  and  simplicity,  the  art 
of  the  Italian  Canova  (ca  no'  va)  and  of  the  Dane  Thorwaldsen 
(tor'vai  zen),  offers  a  refreshing  contrast  to  the  style  which  pre- 
ceded (Nos.  164-168).  The  relation  of  this  latter  art  to  the  studies 
and  influence  of  Winckelmann  has  been  described  at  p.  130.* 

*  See  also  p.  14,  for  matter  concerning  tlie  Q-reek  revival,  of  whicli  this  sculpture  was  one 
phase. 


210  JCULPTUKE  OF  THE  GREEK  REVIVAL. 

Canova  (1757-1822). — In  many  cases  the  works  of  Canova  bor- 
der on  the  extravagance  of  the  ante-Winckelmann  time,  and  the 
change  of  style  in  tliese  cases  is  mainly  apparent  in  a  method  of 
execution  supposed  to  oe  that  of  the  Greek  Antique,  but  which  was 
really  more  allied  to  that  of  the  Roman  copies.  It  can  not  be  said, 
however,  that  Canova's  execution  of  details  ever  reached  the  vigor 
even  of  these.  An  illustration  of  his  departure  from  Antique  con- 
ceptions of  repose  in  the  subject  of  Hercules  is  found  in  his  group 
of  "  Hercules  and  Lichas,"  in  Venice.  He  was  most  successful  in 
subjects  where  a  tender  or  delicate  sentiment  harmonized  with  his 
refinement  of  execution  and  his  native  predispositions  in  art.  The 
i'lustrations  (16-i,  166)  are  examples  of  this  character. 

Thorwaldsen  (1770-1844). — As  far  as  a  later  time  could  go  in  re- 
viving the  style  of  Greek  sculpture,  Thorwaldsen  probably  went.  But 
this  revival  was  wanting  in  the  spontaneous  and  popular  elements 
which  inspired  the  early  Italian  Renaissance.  A  comparison  of 
Thorwaldsen  with  Ghiberti  will  show  that  the  latter,  with  less 
appearance  of  external  imitation,  much  more  nearly  apnroached  the 
ingenuous  simplicity  of  the  Greek  art.  Thorwaldsen  was  born  at 
Copenhagen,  but  was  enabled  to  study  in  Rome,  and  subsequently 
resided  there.  Many  of  his  works  are  in  Copenhagen,  and  others 
are  scattered  through  Europe  (illustrations  16  7,  168). 

During  the  Early  19th  Century,  sculpture  followed,  in  general,  the 
Antique  style,  represented  by  the  two  leading  names  just  recorded. 
Next  to  these,  the  German,  Dannecker  ("Ariadne,"  in  Frankfort, 
at  165),  and  the  Englishman,  John  Gibson  ("Cupid  Disguised  as 
a  Shepherd,"  now  a  loan  in  the  Metroj)olitan  Museum  of  Art,  in 
New  York),  are  the  most  prominent.  The  name  of  Hiram  Powers 
has  been  much  quoted  for  American  sculpture,  but  there  are  many 
living  American  sculptors  whose  work  is  vastly  superior  to  his. 
Powers  also  reflects  in  weaker  execution  the  imitative  "Grecianiz- 
ing"  sculpture  of  the  moderns  above  named. 

A  fine  example  of  the  more  independent  tendencies  of  the  later 
19th  century  is  offered  by  the  recently  deceased  French  sculptor,  Car- 
peaux  (car  po')  ("Group  of  Dancers"  of  the  Paris  Opera  House,  etc.). 
There  is  no  affectation  of  Antique  resemblances  in  the  work  of  this 
artist,  and  yet  his  execution  has  related  merits  of  vigor,  and  his 
conceptions  have  a  similar  power  of  honesty  and  directness.  The 
names  of  Daniel  C.  French,  E.  C.  Potter,  Augustus  St.  Gaudens,  Olin 


i64.     CANOVA.     HEBE.     BERLIN. 


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NINETEENTH  CENTURY  SCULPTURE.  219 

Warner,  and  Edwin  Elwell  are  among  those  which  represent  the  best 
tendencies  of  contemporary  American  sculpture.  Hamo  Thornycroft 
is  one  of  the  leading  names  in  England. 

Notes  on  the  History  of  Sculpture. — It  appears  from  the  foregoing 
sketch  that  the  history  of  sculpture  is  mainly  a  history  of  the  influ- 
ence of  Q-reek  art  on  later  times.  In  the  late  18th  and  early  19th 
century,  it  was  a  model  of  external  style;  in  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries,  it  was  a  model  for  the  study  of  nature  ;  in  the  centuries 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  it  was  a  universally  dominant  model  as 
regards  its  mythological  subjects.  It  is  clear  that  these  phases  of 
the  history  of  statuary  are  only  special  phases  of  the  general  his- 
tory of  culture  and  civilization,  which  has  shown  at  the  times  speci- 
fied a  corresponding  Greek  influence,  either  consciously  or  uncon- 
sciously, in  many  other  ways. 

As  the  unanimous  verdict  of  artists  and  critics  has  given  the 
preference  to  Greek  art,  over  modern,  in  j)oint  of  style  and  execu- 
tion, and  as  the  Greco-Roman  art  is  also  admitted  to  have  been  gen- 
erally superior  to  that  of  later  periods,  some  matter-of-fact  explana- 
tion of  this  perfection  is  desirable.  This  is  to  be  found,  especially 
as  regards  mechanical  excellence,  in  the  enormous  numbers  of  statues 
which  were  made  in  Antiquity.  The  number  of  artisans  and  artists 
employed  in  this  branch  was  infinitely  more  numerous  than  at  any 
later  time,  and  there  was  a  corresponding  facility  in  the  manual 
dexterity  of  production.  The  habits  of  Greek  life  corresponded  to 
those  in  which  the  sculptor's  art  would  most  successfully  flourish. 
Gymnastic  exercise  was  a  matter  of  compulsory  State  education,  on 
which  the  military  system  of  the  Greek  Republics  depended.  Hence, 
the  study  and  knowledge  of  the  human  form  were  a  matter  of 
unconscious  and  natural  education.  The  religious  system  was  a 
polytheism  of  divinities,  which  were  really  personifications  of  human 
virtues  and  human  perfectibility,  and  admirably  adapted  for  repre- 
sentation through  bodilj*  forms. 

Aside  from  these  conditions,  which  made  sculpture  the  natural 
art  expression  of  Greek  life,  it  is  undeniable  that  the  general  refine- 
ment and  nobility  of  Greek  taste  were  also  important  factors  in  its 
excellence.  Kotwithstanding  the  difficulties  which  beset  the  modern 
sculptor  in  rivaling  the  perfection  of  the  Greek  art,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  an  unpretentious  modesty  is  its  greatest  charm.  Wherever 
a  similar  refinement  of  nature  and  taste  favor  a  similar  unpreten- 


220  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  SCULPTURE. 

tious  expression  in  art,  tlie  Greek  style  will  be  fairly  rivaled  and 
achieved  without  the  toil  of  ineffectual  imitation. 

The  peculiar  interest  of  the  Greek  sculpture,  from  a  historical 
stand-point,  lies  in  the  meaning  of  its  mythological  subjects  (p.  151) 
as  formal  personifications  of  human  emotional  and  intellectual  activ- 
ities ;  as  ideals  of  human  perfectibility  in  bodily  beauty  and  in 
spiritual  excellence.  As  regards  its  dignity  of  pose  and  expression, 
it  must  also  always  be  a  source  of  enjoyment  and  admiration,  and 
a  model  of  all  the  virtues  of  good-breeding  in  deportment. 

The  revolution  in  literary  taste  Avhich  closed  the  ISth  century, 
and  subsequently  inspired  the  poets  and  authors  of  ah  modern 
nationalities,  had  for  its  starting-point  the  study  of  the  Greek  statues 
(pp.  1-1-16).  This  fact  gives  them  an  interest  for  modern  times 
which  may  fairly  remove  the  last  vestige  of  any  prejudice  consider- 
ing the  subject  of  Greek  art  as  foreign  to  the  interests  of  the  19th 
century. 

NOTES    ON    THE    ILLUSTRATIONS    FOR    MEDIEVAL,    RENAISSANCE, 

AND    MODERN    SCULPTURE. 

(Nos.  138-168,  inclusive.) 

No.  138  represents  the  early  Christian  art  as  reflecting  the  decadence  of  the 
last  period  of  the  ancient.  No.  139  illustrates  the  isolated  survivals,  which  oc- 
casionally appear  in  the  ivory  carvings,  of  a  style  more  nearly  approaching  the 
ancient  classic  art.  No.  140  shows  the  elongated  figures,  and  stiff,  formal  char- 
acter of  the  Byzantine  style,  as  copied  by  a  contemporary  artist  of  Western  Europe. 

Nos.  141,  142,  143,  are  typical  illustrations  for  the  better  class  of  Northern 
Gothic  sculptures,  dating  between  the  13th  century  and  the  Northern  Renaissance. 
Compare  with  159,  for  the  North  European  style  after  1500.  This  developed 
under  Italian  Renaissance  influence,  whose  rise  and  culmination  are  represented 
by  the  series  of  I'eliefs  and  statues  144-157. 

Nos.  161,  162,  represent  the  sentimental,  theatrical  style  of  the  17th  century, 
common  to  the  whole  of  Europe,  but  inspired  by  the  ruling  Italian  taste  of  the 
time. 

Nos.  164-168  show  by  contrast  the  works  affecting  the  simpler  Greek  style 
and  dating  after  the  Greek  revival  of  the  18th  century. 


l67.     THORWALDSEN.     VENUS.     COFEIIHACEri. 


j6d.     THORWAL  DSEN.     MERCURY.     COPENHAGEN, 


PAINTINO. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Modern  Painting  has  asserted  far  greater  independence  of  historical  art  than 
either  modern  architecture  or  modern  sculpture.  In  these  latter  arts,  even  the 
latest  modern  efforts  at  free  modern  expression  have  developed  from  historical 
influences  which  were  still  dominant  within  the  life-time  of  the  present  generation. 
But  modei'n  jjainting  has  developed  many  schools  which  may  claim  almost  entire 
independence  of  historic  influences,  and  which  show  absolute  novelty  of  stand- 
point, methods,  and  aims,  as  compared  with  older  painters. 

The  "Old  Masters." — On  the  other  hand,  the  general  modern  interest  in  his- 
torical painting  is  much  greater  than  that  in  histoiical  architecture  or  in  historical 
sculpture.  Most  of  the  difficulties  in  the  study  of  historic  paintings  are  connected 
with  this  fact,  that  modern  interest  in  them  is  so  general,  while  modem  pictures 
are  so  different.  The  Old  Masters  can  not  be  viewed  or  criticised  from  the  stand- 
point which  applies  to  19th  century  pictures,  and  when  this  stand-point  is  taken, 
the  result  is  disappointment  to  the  student. 

Scarcity  of  Originals  in  America.— The  peculiar  impediment  for  an  American 
book  to  even  a  brief  essay  on  the  subject  of  historic  painting,  is  found  in  the 
scarcity  of  well-known  and  generally  quoted  good  originals  in  this  country.*  Casts 
and  photographs  may  go  far  to  supply  the  absence  of  original  works  of  sculpture, 
but  copies  or  photographs  of  paintings  have  relatively  inferior  value.  Although 
acquaintance  with  the  originals  is,  of  course,  the  main  object  of  the  study  in 
question,  sozne  matter  of  fact  concerning  them  is  also  a  department  of  general 
education.  For  students  contemplating  European  travel,  it  is  an  essential  thing  to 
have  in  mind  a,  scheme  of  the  subject,  a  knowledge  of  the  places  and  objects  to 
be  seen.  Moreover,  the  literary  outline  of  the  subject  is  an  interesting  aspect  of 
history,  and  a  matter  of  necessary  education  for  many  persons. 

The  Closing-  Period  of  Historic  Art. — Broadly  speaking,  the  great 
periods  of  historic  painting  ended  in  the  17th  century,  and  the 
18th  century  is  almost  a  blank  in  this  field.  This  gap  is  closed 
by  the   18th  century  painters  of  England,  their  still  later  outgrowth 

*  The  best  accessible  examples  of  the  Old  Masters  in  America  are  in  the  collections  of  the 
Historical  Society,  Kew  York,  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York,  and  Boston  Museum  of  Fine 
Arts.    In  all  ifGese  collections  there  are  some  fine  examples. 


224  PERIODS     OF     HISTORIC     PAINTING. 

in  artists  like  Rembrandt  Peale,  Copley,  and  Charles  Gilbert  Stuart 
in  America,  during  the  later  18th  and  early  19th  centuries. 

The  Last  Historic  Italian  School  is  that  of  the  1 7th  century. 
Of  the  same  time  are  the  leading  Spanish  artists  like  Velasquez 
and  Murillo  (mooreryo),  the  best  known  Flemings,  like  Rubens  and 
Van  Dyck  (van  dike'),  and  the  Dutch  school,  headed  by  Rembrandt. 

The  First  Quarter  of  the  l6th  Century  is  the  greatest  period  of 
Italian  painting — the  time  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (vin'che),  Michael 
Angelo,  Raphael  Correggio  (cor  red' jo),  and  Titian  (tish'an).  The 
German  artists,  Albert  Diirer  (dew' rer)  and  Holbein  (bar  bine),  flour- 
ished at  the  same  time.  The  period  of  these  artists  is  that  of  the 
early  Renaissance  (pp.  117,  118,  204,  209). 

15th  and  14th  Centuries. — The  painters  above  named  were  all 
born  in  the  15th  centur}",  and  had  for  teachers  men  of  its  distinct 
and  earlier  style.  This,  again,  is  quite  different  from  the  art  of  the 
14th  centmy,  the  earliest  in  the  development  of  modern  painting. 

The  Four  Centuries  of  Historic  Painting. — Thus  the  scheme  of 
this  subject  comprises  four  centuries,  in  each  of  which  a  different 
style  prevailed,  and  these  centuries  were  (aside  from  the  history  of 
English  painting)  the  14th,  15th,  16th,  and  17th  centuries.  The 
English  school  produced  its  leading  painters  in  the  18th  century, 
as  above  mentioned.  Lely  (lee'iy)  and  Kneller,  generally  quoted  for 
English  portrait  art  in  the  17th  century,  were  Germans. 

The  Art  which  Preceded  the  development  of  painting  in  the 
14th  century  needs  some  preliminary  mention,  and  this  maj^  include, 
also,  a  brief  notice  of  painting  in  Antiquity,  although  the  remains  of 
Greek  and  Roman  art  in  this  field  are  scanty.  The  ancient  Oriental 
painting  was  mainly  limited  to  the  decoration  of  mural  surfaces  in 
tombs,  palaces,  and  temples. 


ANTIQUITY. 


ASSYRIAN    LION -HUNT    (PKOM    THE    SCULPTUKBS}. 


ASSYRIA,    EGYPT,    GREECE,    AND    ROME. 

Assyrian  Painting. — Our  knowledge  of  Assyrian  design  is  bounded 
by  the  reliefs  already  described,  such  as  72,  73  (p.  131),  and  by 
remains  of  decorated  objects  largely  of  Phoenician  manufacture,  but 
supposed  to  be  based  on  As- 
syrian models.  The  reliefs 
mentioned  were  colored,  and 
belong  as  much  to  the  do- 
main of  painting  as  of  sculpt- 
ure. The  decorated  objects 
are  mainly  of  metal  (with 
embossed  or  repouss^*  de- 
signs) or  of  pottery  (Phoe- 
nician or  Greek  manufacture)  decorated  with  Assyrian  emblems  and 
patterns.!  From  the  stand-point  of  decorative  art,  these  Assyrian 
emblems  and  patterns  are  extremely  interesting,  because  they  ex- 
hibit such  fine  decorative  qualities,  and  because  they  have  not  unfre- 
quently  been  adopted  as  models  by  the  Greeks  and  moderns. 

Egyptian  Painting  of  Architectural  Reliefs.— Much  of  the  Egyp- 
tian painting  was  also  the  coloring  of  architectural  carved  reliefs 
(169).  These  were  associated  with  the  carved  hieroglyphic  inscrip- 
tions of  the  temple  walls,  and,  in  a  sense,  formed  a  portion  of 
them.  They  are  characterized  by  the  same  schematic  and  conven- 
tional character.  These  carved  relief  designs  were  stuccoed  and 
then  colored.  Very  slight  attention  to  the  external  forms  of  Egyp- 
tian hieroglyphic  Avriting  will   show  that  the  signs  for  the  syllables, 

*  HepoussS  is  a  word  used  to  indicate  embossed  designs  in  metal  wMcli  are  hammered  out,  or 
"pushed  out,"  from  the  inside. 

+  Recent  investigations  show  that  much  that  has  been  called  Assyrian  style  in  early  Greek 
and  Italian  art  is  Egypto-Phoenician  and  G-reco-Egyptian. 


226 


ANTIQUE     PAINTING. 


letters,  and  ideas,  which  are  variously  conveyed  by  them,  are  pict- 
ures,  or  have  a  pictorial  origin.  The  reasons  why  these  pictures 
should  have  been  abbreviated  and  simplified  for  the  convenience  of 
carving  or  writing  are  apparent;  hence,  a  schematic  style  which 
reacted  on  the  pictorial  art  connected  with  them. 

Characteristics  of  Egyptian  Painting.— The  wall  paintings  of  the 
Egyptian  tombs,  among  which  those  of  Beni  Hassan  (p.  41)  are 
especially  famed,  exhibit  in  some  of  the  earliest  known  examples  a 

freedom  and  nat- 
ural verity  parallel 
with  that  of  the 
early  statues  al- 
ready mentioned 
(p.  132).  They  are 
always,  however, 
in  outline,  without 
perspective  effects 
or  elaborated  de- 
tails. This  simple 
and  typical  method 
of  Egyptian  paint- 
ing had  great  value 
as  a  system  of  surface  decoration.  Some  of  its  peculiarities  are 
manifestly  national  and  characteristic  expressions  of  the  tendencies 
otherwise  apparent  in  the  Egyptian  architecture  and  sculpture. 
The  rigid  outlines  of  the  pictorial  figures,  the  fixed  pose  of  the 
statues,  and  the  solemn  massiveness  of  the  temple  constructions, 
are  related  facts.  The  peculiar  Egyptian  method  of  drawing  face, 
legs,  and  feet  of  the  human  figure  in  profile,  combined  with  a  front 
view  of  the  body  and  shoulders  (16  9),  shows  an  unwillingness  to 
break  the  appearance  of  surface  solidity  by  the  slightest  appear- 
ance of  recession  or  projection. 

Egyptian  Use  of  Color. — From  a  decorative  stand-point,  the 
Eg3'iitian  use  and  combinations  of  color  were  extremely  harmo- 
nious and  ofi'ective.*  The  durability  of  their  paints,  plastering,  and 
stuccoes  has  been  such  as  to  leave  abundant  remains  for  modej^n 
study.     The  scheme  and  tones  of  the  Egyptian   colors  can  be  noted 


EGYPTIAN    WAR   CHARIOT    (THEBES). 


*  See   Owen  Jones'    "Grammar  of  Ornament,"    and   Prisse   d'Avenne's   "Histoire    de  TArt 
Egyptien." 


j.6g.    TYPE   OF   EGYPTIAN    PROFILE   DESIGN.      KING   SETl'  I.'     ABYDUS".   ""      '    " 


a, 
2 
o 

6 

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o 


03 

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CO 
CO 

)-« 

o 

H 

< 

oa 


ANTIQUE     PAINTING.  229 

in  the  mummy  cases  and  in   the  minor   objects   of  Egyptian  deco- 
rative art  commonly  exhibited  in  Museums.* 

Origin  of  Greek  Art. — Historically  speaking,  the  Greeks  developed 
their  art  of  surface  design,  as  well  as  their  sculpture,  from  Egj-p- 
tian  and  Oriental  sources  (pp.  139,  l-iO), 

The  Greek  Vases,  found  in  tomb  excavations,  have  been  preserved 
in  such  numbers  as  to  furnish  a  record  of  the  development  of 
the  independent  Greek  style  from  these  influences.  The  paint- 
ings of  the  great  periods  of  Greek  art  have  all  perished,  but  there 
is  no  doubt  that  they  rivaled  in  excellence  the  statuary  art,  which 
has  been  more  fortunate  as  regards  preservation.  Large  mural 
decorative  pictures  were  the  most  important  works  ;  as  in  the  C8*^ 
of  the  later  Italian  art. 

The  Greco-Roman  Art, — The  general  dependence  of  the  art  of 
the  Roman  Empire  on  earlier  Greek  sources,  has  been  already  indi- 
cated (pp.  128-130).  The  copies  of  the  Roman  period,  which  have 
been  preserved  in  painting,  were  made  by  ordinary  house  decora- 
tors, and  are  the  only  remains  (aside  from  some  mosaics)  which 
give  an  idea  of  an  otherwise  lost  Greek  art.  These  works,  notwith- 
standing the  relatively  humble  character  of  the  artisan  designers, 
are  wonderfully  beautiful  in  color,  and  often  vigorous  in  drawing. 

Pompeian  Frescoes. — The  most  abundant  remains  are  on  the 
plastered  walls  of  the  Pompeian  houses  (p.  79).  Many  of  these  fres- 
coes have  been  removed  from  Pompeii  to  the  Naples  Museum.  In 
many  cases  the  colors  are  still  vivid  and  fresh.  Some  similar  works 
of  great  beauty  have  also  been  found  in  Rome.  The  photographs 
of  these  Greco-Roman  frescoes  are  peculiarly  unfavorable  copies  of 
the  originals,  and  much  allowance  must  be  made^ — as  always  in 
photographs  of  originals  in  color — for  their  necessary  short-comings. 

The  **  Aldobrandini  Wedding,"  —  A  small  fresco  in  the  Vatican, 
known  as  the  "  Aldobrandini  Wedding,"  is  thus  named  from  the 
villa  near  which  it  was  found.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a  copy  of  a 
Greek  work  of  reputation,  representing  an  antique  marriage  scene. 

The  "  Battle  of  Issus." — The  mosaic  in  the  Naples  Museum,  known 
as  the  "Battle  of  Issus,"  is  also  supposed  to  be  a  copy  of  a  Greek 
original.  This  mosaic  was  a  floor  decoration  in  Pompeii.  These  are 
the  two  most  generally  quoted  Antique  pictures,  but  there  are  hun- 

*  Abbott  Collection  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society,  Collections  of  the  Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum, N.  T.,  Boston  Museum  of  i'ine  Arts,  etc. 


230 


ANTIQUE     PAINTING. 


dreds  of  others  of  almost  equal  interest.  Both  the  designs  mentioned 
show  that  method  of  foreground  composition,  and  of  decorative 
effects  based  on  the  outlines  of  the  human  figure,  which  re-appears 
in  the  best  period  of  Italian  art.  This  was,  partly  at  least,  inspired 
by  Antique  originals. 

Panel  Pictures  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. — In  otner  cases,  tlie 
realistic  and  illusive  effects  so  highly  prized  by  the  taste  of  the 
19  th  century,  were  successfully  attained.  Paintings  of  the  latter 
class  were  generally  on  panels,  like  the  pictures  of  our  own  time, 
and  have  consequently  perished,  but  some  Antique  mosaics  show 
that  this  realistic  art  was  extremely  successful.  The  mosaic  of  the 
"Drinking  Doves,"  in  the  Capitol  Museum  at  Rome,  is  a  well-known 
example  of  this  class. 


Greek  Vase,   Munich. 


ITALIAN   PAINTING. 

EARLY    CHRISTIAN    ART. 

Pictures  of  the  Catacombs.  —  The  art  of  mosaic  decoration 
forms  the  comiecting  hnk  between  ancient  and  modern  painting. 
The  wall  paintings  of  the  Catacombs  of  Rome  (the  underground 
cemeteries  of  the  early  Christians)  are  of  the  greatest  interest  from 
the  stand-point  of  Christian  archseology,  but  they  did  not  develop 
into  any  later  school  of  painting.  They  exhibit,  in  Christian  sub- 
jects, a  continuation  and  late  survival  of  the  ancient  Greco-Roman 
wall  pictures,  as  regards  method  and  design.  ^Yhen  Christianity 
was  relieved  from  persecution,  and  the  consequent  necessity  of 
using  these  underground  cemeteries  as  places  of  refuge  and  places 
of  worship,  this  method  of  wall  decoration  was  generally  abandoned 
for  the  more  sumptuous  and  more  lasting  art  of  mosaic. 

Mosaic  Pictures  were  made  in_jVntiquity  both  from  cubes  oi 
colored  glass  and  from  cubes  ot  colored  stone.  The  Antique 
remains  are  generally  of  the  latter  material,  and  they  are  generally 
found  in  use  for  floorings,  although  they  were  also  occasionally  em- 
ployed for  wall  decorations.  In  early  Christian  art,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  mosaics  were  used  preferably  for  wall  decoration,  and 
were  constructed  from  small  cubes  of  colored  glass.  The  upper 
interior  wall  surfaces  of  all  important  Christian  churches  were 
decorated  with  mosaics  during  many  centuries.  The  art  was  ;prac- 
ticed  mainly  by  Byzantine  artists  (pp.  81,  82),  as  well  in  Western 
Europe  as  in  the  B3^zantine  countries  (North  Africa,  Egypt,  Syria, 
Asia  Minor,  and  territories  of  later  European  Turkey). 

Remains. — In  many  of  the  early  Roman  Basilicas  remains  of 
these  mosaics,  dating  from  the  5th,  6th,  and  later  centuries,  may 
still  be  seen.  St.  Mark's,  at  Venice,  offers  the  best  existing  example 
of  the  original  effects  of  many  other  churches.  As  far  as  the  Basil- 
icas are  concerned,  only  one  of  them   has  retained  its  side-wall  mo- 


232  BYZAXTIXE     MOSAICS. 

saics  down  to  the  19th  century,  the  Church  of  San  Apollinare 
Nuovo  (a  po  lena'ra  noo  o' vo),  at  Ravenna  (i4,  p.  83).  This 
church  has  lost  the  mcsaic  of  its  apse.  •  The  designs  date  from  the 
6th  century. 

Mosaic  Style  and  Methods. — The  mosaic  pictures  (examples  171, 
17-i,  175,  176)  were  constructed  from  an  architectural  and  decora- 
tive stand-point.  Gorgeous  effects  of  color  were  the  main  object. 
The  backgrounds  were  of  gold — that  is,  cubes  of  glass  in  this  color. 
The  figures  were  of  stiff  and  formal  outline,  but  in  brilliant  colors, 
relieved  and  set  off  by  the  gold  backgrounTI.  The  influence  of  earh' 
Christian  feeling  and  surroundings  on  the  arts  of  design  has  been 
explained  under  the  section  for  sculpture  (p.  189). 

The  Technical  Construction  of  the  mosaics  necessitated  the 
employment  of  a  multitude  of  artisans,  working  from  patterns 
which  could  not  be  accurately  copied  in  the  coarse  material  (as 
illustrated  by  details  of  No.  175).  This  intractability  of  the  material 
used,  as  regards  refinement  of  expression  or  delicacy  of  outlines, 
tended  to  create  a  schematic,  formal  style.  Much  of  the  stiffness 
and  formalism  of  Byzantine  art  in  general  is  doubtless  owing  to 
the  reaction  of  mosaic  art  on  other  branches  of  design. 

The  Byzantine  Panel  Pictures  were  painted  in  similar  set  and 
formal  outlines,  and  the  style  thus  formed  has  continued  in  the  ter- 
ritories of  the  Greek  Church,  and  in  Russia,  down  to  a  recent  time. 

The  Influence  of  Religious  Tradition,  and  the  conservative 
spirit  of  Byzantine  history,  which  was  in  many  Avays  a  sort  of 
petrified  survival  of  ancient  civilization,  were  also  influential  in 
Byzantine  style.  It  may  be  finally  observed  that  Oriental  infiuences 
are  very  apparent  in  Byzantine  art  and  history,  and  that  Oriental 
art  has  generally  shown  a  tendency  to  the  decorative  in  color,  with 
comparatively  little  feeling  for  beauty  of  outline  in  form. 


NOTES    ON  THE   ILLUSTRATIONS   FOR   THE    BYZANTINE   MOSAICS  AND 

EARLY   CHRISTIAN    ART. 

(171-176,  inclusive.) 

No.  172  shows  a  typical  fresco  from  the  Roman  catacombs. 

The  mosaic  represented  at  171  dates  from  the  5th  century ;  subject — Christ  with 
His  flock  conceived  as  the  Shepherd  guarding  his  sheep.  It  is  one  of  tlie  interior 
decorations  of  the  tomb  of  Galla  Placidia,  in  Ravenna.  Galla  Placidia  was  the 
sister  of  the  Roman  Empei'or  Honorius  and  wife  of  the  Visigothic  Chieftain 
Athaulf.     The  period  is  that  of  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  West. 


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172.     The  Lpst  Supp-^r,     FreE-co;     v'atacombs  of  San  Calisto.     Rome.     Third  Century. 
I7J.     N';n!at.a-e  ^ain'.iAg.    '  The  'Apostle  Matthew.      Fron:  the  Evangelasium  of  the  Emperor   Chane- 
magne.     Vienna. 


174.     Empeior  Justinian  and  Courtiers.     Mosaic.     San  Vitale.     Ravenna. 


175.     Christ  before  Pilate.     Mosaic.     San  Vitale.     Rayennt.. 


'■  '^Jiii^'H/^' 


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REVIVAL     OF     ITALIAN     PAINTING.  237 

The  mosaics  from  San  Vitale  (vee  til' la),  represented  at  174,  175,  date  from  the 
6th  century.  The  interior  of  the  Church  of  San  Vitale  is  shown  at  No.  48,  p.  88. 
The  mosaic  174  is  in  the  choir  seen  at  the  left  of  this  picture.  The  church  was 
bmlt  by  the  East  Roman  Emperor  Justinian,  whose  territories  included  Italy,  after 
his  armies  had  expelled  the  German  Ostro-Goths  from  the  country.  As  specified 
in  the  title  of  the  illustration,  it  represents  the  Emperor  and  his  courtiers.  The 
■original  of  176  is  the  grandest  and  most  imposing  work  of  early  Christian  art. 
I'he  figures  are  of  colossal  dimensions. 

The  above  illustrations  are  typical  in  a  broad  way  for  the  Byzantine  mosaic  art 
during  the  entire  period  of  its  continuance  in  Italy,  viz.,  from  the  4th  to  the  14th 
century.  It  was  not  till  the  14th  century  and  the  time  of  Giotto,  that  there  was 
any  substantial  change  in  the  pictorial  art  of  Italy.  These  illustrations  are  there- 
fore intended  to  contrast  broadly  with  those  which  follow  for  the  14th  century. 
(133-136,  inclusive.) 

The  brilliant  colors  and  gold  backgrounds  of  the  originals   compensate  for  the 
coarseness  of  the  work  and  for  the  stiff  attitudes  and  formal  expressions. 

The   manuscripts   of  the  period  were  written  on  vellum,  and  frequently  deco- 
rated with  carefully  executed  paintings  in  miniature  (173). 


REVIVAL   OF   ITALIAN    PAINTING   IN   THE  14TH   CENTURY. 

Earlier  Wall  Paintings. — Byzantine  mosaic  decoration  was  still  habitually  em- 
ployed in  Italy  during  the  13th  century.  There  are  some  remains  of  wall  paint- 
ings preceding  the  14th  century,  but  they  are  of  barbarous  character.  In  Northern 
Europe,  the  Romanesque  period  (pp.  92,  99)  had  produced  a  school  of  decorative 
wall  painting,  whose  scanty  remains  bespeak  great  power  and  simplicity  of  com- 
position and  fine  effects  in  color.  But  this  school  of  art  had  been  swept  away  by 
the  rise  of  the  Gothic  style.  The  large  stained  glass  windows  of  the  Gothic  (p.  106) 
were  as  detrimental  to  design  outside  of  decoration  as  the  Byzantine  mosaics  had 
been,  and  for  similar  reasons. 

Precedence  of  Italy  in  Modern  Art. — The  indisposition  of  the  Italians  to  adopt 
the  Gothic  style  of  architecture  has  been  already  noticed  (pp.  109,  110).  The  pre- 
cedence of  Italy  in  the  history  of  modern  painting  is  especially  explained  by  this 
fact.  Italian  painting  first  developed  in  the  decoration  of  the  wall  surfaces  which 
were  left  intact  by  the  non-adoption  of  the  Gothic  style,  and  its  large  surfaces  of 
stained  glass.  After  two  centuries  of  practice,  Italy  so  far  surpassed  Northern 
Europe  in  design  that  when  the  Gothic  style  was  overthrown,  at  the  opening 
of  the  16th  century,  the  expansion  of  Italian  style  and  influence  over  Europe 
was  inevitable.  This  expansion  was  assisted  by  the  general  causes  already  ex- 
plained (p.  118).  Thus  Italian  painting  precedes  and  influences  that  of  the  rest 
of  Europe,  as  far  as  its  modern  development  is  concerned.  T'le  exceptions  to  this 
general  law,  found  in  early  German  and  in  early  Flemish  art,  will  be  subsequently 
noticed. 


Influence  of  Nicolo  of  Pisa. — As  usual  in  the  history  of  art,  so 
at  this  time  in  Italy,  the  study  of  concrete  form  preceded  that  of 
surface  design  and  color.     ISTicolo  of  Pisa  (p.  195)  is  recognized  as 


238  FOURTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING. 

the  predecessor,  and  in  some  sense,  as  the  inspirer  of  the  Florentine 
painter  Giotto  (jot'o). 

School  of  Giotto. — The  14th  century  style  of  painting  in  Italy 
is  headed  by  the  name  of  the  Florentine  Giotto  (12  76-133()),  in 
the  sense  that  his  works  were  the  first  to  create  a  wide-spread  move- 
ment, and  to  produce  a  new  school  of  art,  and  the  first  to  show 
thorough  independence  of  the  Byzantine  style. 

Cimabue  (chee  inah  boo'a)  was  the  teacher  and  earlier  contempo- 
rary of  Giotto,  and  is  usually  quoted  as  the  first  who  overthrew  the 
Byzantine  style.  It  is  true  that  his  few  remaining  Avorks  show 
some  deviations  from  Byzantine  models ;  also  true  that  they  con- 
tinue to  resemble  them  in  general  aspect.  The  contrasts  and  simi- 
larities will  speak  for  themselves  in  illustration  (Soule  photographs). 
There  is  a  mosaic  of  Byzantine  style  by  Cimabue  in  the  apse  of  the 
Pisa  Cathedral.  His  best  remaining  paintings  are  Madonnas  in  the 
Church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  and  in  the  Academy  at  Florence,  ana 
frescoes  in  St.  Francis,  Assisi. 

The  Lives  of  the  Italian  Painters  have  been  written  by  Yasari  (va  sii'  re),  an 
Italian  who  lived  in  the  16th  century.  There  is  an  excellent  English  translation  in 
"  Bohn's  Library."  All  that  is  known  of  these  lives,  in  the  way  of  anecdote  and 
detail,  may  be  found  in  Vasari's  work,  which  is  extremely  readable.  As  regards 
criticism,  his  book  is  not  now  rated  as  of  great  v.-orth,  but  this  does  not  affect  its 
value  as  regards  the  biographies  themselves.  Although  the  book  reaches  the 
extent  of  six  volumes,  the  choice  of  the  reader  may  select  the  more  important 
names,  and  it  may  in  this  v/ay  be  abridged  at  discretion. 

Giotto's  Epoch-making  Work  was  the  decoration  in  fresco  of  a 
small  building,  in  Padua — the  Chapel  of  Santa  Maria  deU'Arena* 
(a  ra'  na).     The  subjects   of  the  side-walls  are  from  New  Testament 

♦Presco  is  the  Italian  word  applied  to  paintings  oa  plaster,  that  is,  on  wall  surfaces.  The 
word  itself  relates  to  the  method  generally  employed.,  which  colored  the  plaster  while  it  was  wet 
or  "fresh."  In  this  method,  an  amount  of  plastering  sufficient  for  one  day's  work  was  laid  on 
the  wall  each  day.  The  surface  in  question  naturally  did  not  favor  deep  shadows  or  dark  colors, 
nor  was  it  adapted  to  minute  finish  of  minor  details.  The  dictates  of  decorative  feeling  relating 
to  the  use  of  color  on  large  surfaces,  therefore,  coincided  with  the  methods  naturally  employed  on 
a  plaster  surface.  Thus  the  old  Italian  frescoes  are  distinguished  by  a  gay,  light  tone,  and  also 
by  the  decided  outlines  most  favorable  in  figure  compositions  to  decorative  effects.  The  painter 
was  obliged  to  work  with  a  certain  rapidity.  Colors  or  outlines  once  laid  on,  could  only  be 
changed  by  removing  the  plaster  surface  affected,  and  renewing  the  work.  Thus  the  art  tended 
to  broad  methods  in  coloring,  and  to  vigorous  and  correct  off-hand  design.  For  the  first  two 
centuries  of  Italian  painting,  nearly  all  the  leading  works  were  wall-paintings.  The  same  holds 
of  many  of  the  greatest  Italian  pictures  of  the  16th  century.  The  wall  decoration  of  churches 
and  public  buildings  demanded  subjects  and  conceptions  corresponding  to  the  inrportance  and 
Bignificance  of  the  structures  themselves.    The  external  conditions  were  thus  highly  favorable  to 


177-     Giotto.     The  Birth.     Fresco.     Padua. 

178.     Giotto.     Presentation  of  the  Virgin.     Fresco.     Padua . 


179.  Giotto.     Flight  into  Egypt.     Fresco,  Padua. 

180.  Giotto.     The  Flagellation.     Fresco,  Padua. 


FOURTEENTn     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING,  241 

history,  arranged  in  four  lines,  one  set  above  the  other.  (Nos.  177-18S 
are  examples.)  At  the  ends  of  the  building  are  larger  compositions. 
These  are  less  successful  and  less  quoted. 

Frescoes  of  Santa  Maria  dell'Arena. — In  the  illustrations  177-183,  may  be 
noticed  the  features  which  distinguish  the  style  of  Giotto  from  that  of  the  Byzantine 
mosaics,  and  the  abandonment  of  their  stiff  attitudes  and  rigid  pose.  When  com- 
pared bluntly  with  19th  century  pictures,  much  that  is  curious  and  quaint  will 
appear,  but  it  was  impossible  that  one  artist,  or  one  generation,  should  entirely 
conquer  the  Byzantine  formalism  which  had  been  dominant  in  Italy  for  ten  cent- 
uries. Moreover,  some  departures  from  the  style  of  our  own  time  are  related  to 
ths  decorative  necessities  of  wall-painting.  An  elaborate  execution  of  landscape 
background  would  have  broken  the  effects  of  the  color  scheme  employed,  and 
would  have  interfered  with  the  outlines  of  the  figure  compositions.  In  the  original 
Dol.ors  these  pictures  are  still  very  effective  architectural  decorations. 

Characteristics  of  14th  Century  Style. — The  most  important 
aspect  of  the  1-ith  century  art  is  the  sincerity  and  depth  of  its 
religious  feeling.  No  other  period,  except  that  of  the  Christian 
paintings  of  the  Catacombs,  has  shown  more  reverence  for  the 
worth  of  the  subjects  themselves,  as  distinct  from  the  effort  to 
impress  the  spectator  with  a  display  of  technical  skill,  or  to  interest 
him  in  the  mere  reproduction  of  natural  forms  and  appearance. 

Subjects. — The  art  of  the  time  was  confined  to  the  traditions  ot 
Christianity,  and  to  the  illustration  of  the  Bible  events  and  stories. 
An  attitude  which  considers  the  gravity  of  the  subject  first,  and 
then  fairly  weighs  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome,  and  the  actual 
success  achieved,  will  have  no  diflficulties  in  respecting  and  admiring 
the  art  of  Giotto  and  his  school.  There  are  many  other  wall  pict- 
ures by  Giotto,  especially  in  Florence  and  at  Assisi  (assee'zy),  but 
those  in  Padua  are  the  most  famous  and  the  most  characteristic. 

The  Scholars  of  Giotto. — A  peculiar  feature  of  the  14th  cent- 
ury Italian  art,  is  the  general  correspondence  in  the  appearance 
and  quality  of  pictures  by  many  distinct  individuals.  So  marked 
are  the  resemblances  that  much  confusion  has  crept  into  the 
records  connecting  individual  names  with  individual  works.  There 
is  no  period  of  art  in  which  the  name  of  the  artist  is  so  unimpor- 
tant. The  leading  scholars  of  Giotto,  and  all  Italian  artists  of  the 
century  were  his  scholars  in   one  sense   or  another,  often   rival  his 

the  development  and  tlie  support  of  artistic  genius.    Public  sympathy  and  popular  approval  were  • 
the  sure  reward  of  every  success.    The  work  of  the  artist  in  fresco  was  not  concealed  in  a  private 
studio,  or  sold  to  a  private  individual. 


242  FOURTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING. 

greatness,  and   rarely  fall   below  it,     Xone   of  them   introduced  any 
manifest  departure  from  the  style  which  he  had  created. 

Frescoes  of  the  Capella  Spagnuoli. — Among  many  interesting 
works,  there  are  two  groups  of  wall-paintings,  which  require  especial 
mention  beside  those  of  the  Paduan  Chapel.  One  of  these  is  tiie 
series  of  the  Capella  dei  Spagnuoli  (day  ee  span  you  o'lej,  in  Flor- 
ence. This  "  Chapel  of  the  Spaniards "  adjoins  the  famous  Church 
of  Santa  Maria  Novella.  The  chapel  dome  and  walls  are  decorated 
with  frescoes,  by  artist  whose  names  are  not  certainly  known. 

Combinations  of  Subject  in  One  Field. — The  four  triangular  sections  of  the 
doine  ax'e  best  adapted  for  complete  photographic  rerjroduction.  The  compositions 
of  the  side  walls  are  too  extensive  for  reproduction  in  a  single  photographic  pict- 
ure. In  one  of  these  dome  frescoes,  that  representing  the  Resurrection,  a  feature 
appears,  which  is  a  constant  occurrence  in  Italian  art,  viz.,  the  union  of  various 
related  subjects  in  a  single  field.  For  instance,  in  this  case,  the  women  coming 
from  Jerusalem  to  visit  the  Tomb,  are  in  one  angle,  the  Resurrection  is  in  the 
center;  in  the  other  angle  we  see  the  ineeting  of  Christ  and  Mary  Magdalen 
after  the  Resurrection.  This  association  of  related  subjects  v/ithout  indications  of 
local  separation,  is  partly  a  result  of  the  large  spaces  to  be  decorated,  which  could 
not  artistically  be  subdivided  into  minor  separate  panels,  but  it  also  belongs  to  the 
ideal  spirit  of  an  art  whose  mission  was  rather  Biblical  instruction,  or  illustration, 
than  realistic  illusion.  Such  instances  are  of  constant  occurrence  in  the  best 
periods  of  Italian  art.  They  assist  to  comprehension  of  the  absence  of  local  details 
in  the  individual  scenes,  which  has  a  similar  explanation. 

Frescoes  of  the  Pisan  Campo  Santo. — A  third  series  of  14tb 
centur}'  frescoes,  in  Pisa,  claims  equal  rank  with  the  works  of  the 
Chapel  in  Padua,  and  with  those  just  mentioned  in  the  Capella 
dei  Spagnuoli.  Although  there  are  many  other  Avall-x^aintings  of 
the  same  school  and  period,  there  are  none  quite  equaling  the 
quality  and  reputation  of  those  mentioned.  Near  the  Cathedral  and 
Baptistery  of  Pisa,  stands  the  Cemetery,  or  Campo  Sento.  The 
interior  is  an  oblong  quadrangular  open  space,  surrounded  by  open 
arcades,  and  a  cloistered  gallery.  The  inner  walls  of  the  gallery  are 
covered  with  frescoes  of  14th  and  15th  century  art.  Among  the 
former  are  two  of  special  note — the  "Triumph  of  Death,"  and  the 
''  Last  Judgment " — both  of  uncertain  authorship. 

The  "  Triumph  of  Death  "  combines  a  series  of  episodes  in  one  moral.  At  the 
lower  left  of  the  painting  we  see  a  group  of  coffins,  which  suddenly  block  the 
path  of  a  hunting  party.     Beyond  them  a  group  of  cripples,  so  miserable  that 


i8i.     Giotto.     The  Judas  Kiss.     Fresco,   Padua. 
182.     Gictto.     The  Deposition.     Fresco,   Padua. 


i33-     G:o*.to. .  Th-;  Resurrection.     Fresco,   Padua, 
■-lit 

284.     Giotto.     St.   Francis  of  Assisi  preaching  before  Pope  Honorius  III.     Fresco,  Assisi. 


FOURTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING.  245 

they  can  not  endure  life,  hold  out  their  arms  in  appeal  to  the  Angel  of  Death 
to  release  them.  The  latter,  without  regarding  this  appeal,  hovers  over  a  pleasure 
party  seated  in  a  garden. 

In  the  upper  part  of  the  picture  angels  and  demons  contend  for  the  soula 
ot  the  dead,  which  are  represented  by  small,  nude  bodies.  In  the  upper  left 
section  of  the  painting  we  see  a  monk's  cell,  and  its  tenants  near  at  hand, — a. 
representation  of  the  life  which  is  spent  in  contemplating  the  moral  which  is  the 
subject  of  the  rest  of  the  picture. 

The  "  Last  Judgment." — Immediately  adjacent  to  this  composition  is  one  of  nearly 
equal  size — the  "Last  Judgment."  Christ  and  the  Virgin  enthroned  are  sur- 
rounded by  apostles  and  prophets.  On  the  left  of  these  the  lost  souls  bewail 
their  fate  ;  on  their  right,  those  who  are  saved  look  upward  toward  the  Redeemer. 
In  the  center,  yawning  tombs  give  up  their  dead,  and  the  angels  of  the  Judgment 
separate  and  assign  to  either  side  those  who  are  rising  from  them. 

Fra  Angelico  (1387-1455). — The  style  of  the  1-ith  century  is  so  v 
distinct  from  that  of  the  15th,  that  it  is  best  to  include  with  the 
former  one  xjarticular  artist  of  the  15th  century  who  adhered  to 
the  earlier  style.  Fra  Angelico  da  Fiesoli  (ahn  jay'iee  ko  dah 
fe  ay'  so  le),  whose  last  name  indicates  his  birthplace — a  mountain 
village  near  Florence — was  a  monk  of  the  Dominican  Convent  of 
St.  Mark's,  of  this  latter  town.  His  most  important  works  were  a 
series  of  frescoes  in  the  cells  of  this  convent. 

Frescoes  of  St.  Mark's  Convent,  Florence. — This  series  shows  the  spirit  of  the 
time  of  Giotto  and  similar  methods  of  art.  These  inethods  are  especially  inter- 
esting here,  since  a  new  and  naturalistic  style  was  already  current,  of  which  the 
monk  could  have  easily  availed  himself  if  it  had  belonged  to  the  spirit  of  his 
work  to  do  so.  Fra  Angelico  is  otherwise  best  known  l)y  the  copies  in  color  of 
the  Angel  Musicians  .which  surround  one  of  his  Madonnas  in  Florence.  In  this 
and  other  oil-paintings  his  coloring  is  remarkably  delicate  and  vivid.  The  expres- 
sions of  his  faces  are  pure  and  soulful  to  a  degree  scarcely  otherwise  known  to 
art.    (A  picture  of  the  Madonna  at  191.) 


NOTES    ON    THE    ILLUSTRATIONS    FOR    ITALIAN    PAINTINGr    OP    THE    14TH 

CENTURY. 

(Nos.  177-184,  inclusive.) 

As  compared  with  Byzantine  mosaics  (171-176),  we  observe  some  elementary 
efifoits  at  depicting  backgrounds  and  natural  scenery.  These  are,  however,  kept 
in  strict  subordination  to  the  figure  compositions,  i.e.,  to  the  essential  facts  of  the 
Scripture  stories.  In  the  figure  compositions  there  is  a  dramatic  element  of  action 
and  expression  wholly  wanting  in  the  Byzantine  period.  The  grouping  of  the 
figures  ("  composition  "  of  the  picture)  is  frequently  carried  to  a  high  pitch  of  per- 
fection. 182  has  been  almost  universally  selected  by  compendiums  of  art  history 
as  an  example  of  this  quality.     The  faces  have  frequently  a  typical  resemblance 


246  FIFTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING. 

(179,  182).     Individual  portraiture  was   not   geni>rally  attempted.      Facial   expres- 
sions  are  more  or  less  rigid  or  contorted  if  emotion  is  depicted  (180,  182). 

For  the  use  and  contrasts  ol  color  tlufing  this  period,  the  reproductions  of  the 
Arundel  Society,  "  Arundel  Chromos,"  may  be  consulted.  Owen  Jones'  "  Gram- 
mar of  Ornament "  gives  examples  in  color  of  the  decorative  borders  in  common 
use  at  the  time.  The  compositions  can  be  fairly  judged  only  in  the  original  colors 
and  architectural  location,  and  the  short-comings  of  photographic  reproduction 
must  be  kept  in  view. 

ITALIAN  PAINTING  OF  THE  15TH  CENTURY   RENAISSANCE. 

The  Revolution  in  Italian  Art  Avhich  distinguishes  this  century 
did  not  begin  till  its  first  quarter  had  passed  away.  The  1-ith  cent- 
ury style  lasted  a  full  century  and  a  quarter,  without  reference  to 
the  still  later  isolated  case  of  Fra  Angelico. 

Influence  of  Ghiberti.— The  changes  effected  in  the  15th  century 
are  nearly  all  summed  up  in  the  designs  of  the  bronze  doors  by 
Ghiberti,  which  have  been  illustrated  (148,  pp.  200,  201),  and  which 
are  equally  important  monuments  for  the  history  of  painting  and 
of  sculpture.  They  are  an  astounding  monument  of  genius  when 
we  observe  their  pictorial  character,  and  then  compare  them  with 
the  pictorial  art  of  the  14th  century  style  just  illustrated.  The 
designs  of  the  Baptistery  doors  first  made  by  Ghiberti  (not  illus- 
trated) are  a  connecting  link  and  transition  from  the  one  style  to 
the  other,  but  otherwise  the  step  taken  by  Italian  art  under  the 
direction  of  this  one  genius  is  as  sudden  and  complete  as  the  illus- 
trations would  make  it  appear.  AYe  pass,  almost  without  warning, 
from  a  style  Avhich  is  in  many  ways  awkward  and  quaint  for  mod- 
ern feeling,  to  another  thoroughly  allied  to  our  own.  The  doors  by 
Ghiberti  are  thus  a  monument  of  history,  as  well  as  a  monument 
of  art.  They  show  where,  when,  and  how  "modern"  feeling  first 
de-yeloped — in  the  Italian  Renaissance. 

A  Similar  Suddenness  of  Development  has  already  appeared  in 
the  contrast  between  the  style  of  Giotto  and  that  of  the  Byzantine 
mosaics.  Another  parallel  between  14th  and  15th  century  art  lies 
in  the  similar  rapidity  with  which  l)oth  new  styles  mastered  the 
whole  of  Italy  as  soon  as  they  came  into  existence.  Among  the 
artists  employed  to  assist  Ghiberti  was  one  named  Masaccio 
(masat'cho),  and  in  the  field  of  painting  proper  the  new  revolu- 
tion first  took  shape  in  his  works.  The  Giottesque  style  was  defi- 
nitely and  decisively  displaced  by  it. 


iSe.    MASOLiNOo    Fresco  from  Soeoes  in  the  Life  of  the  Virgin.    Castigiione  d'OIona. 


FIFTEENTH     C  E  N  T  U  II Y     ITALIAN     I'  A  I  N  T  I N  G .  249 

Masaccio  (1402-1429). — The  only  well-authenticated  pictures 
attributed  tc  this  artist  are  the  famous  ones  in  the  Brancacci 
(bran  kat' Che)  Chapel,  in  Florence.  This  chapel  is  a  portion  of  the 
Church  of  Santa  Carmine  (san'tah  karme'na).  Among  these  pict- 
ures, that  of  the  "Tribute  Money,"  painted  about  1426,  is  espe- 
cially distinguished  (185). 

The  "Tribute  Money." — Comparison  with  the  works  of  Giotto 
and  of  his  century  will  show  a  new  facility  in  the  disposition, 
action,  and  grouping  of  the  figures,  and  an  ability  to  portray  faces 
and  facial  expressions,  quite  lacking  in  the  earlier  period.  The 
introduction  of  landscape  backgrounds,  and  of  other  naturalistic  acces- 
sories, is  in  remarkable  contrast  to  earlier  works,  but  photographs 
are  too  feeble  to  portray  faithfully  these  distinctions.  The  colors, 
already  well-combined  and  contrasted  by  Giotto's  period,  are  still 
more  successfully  harmonized  by  Masaccio  and  his  followers. 

Characteristics  of  Masaccio.— In  addition  to  these  points  of  contrast  with  14th 
century  art,  we  may  observe  a  quiet  reticence  and  dignity  of  feehng,  and  an 
elevation  of  conception  which  grow  on  tlie  observer  (of  the  originals  at  least),  until 
Masaccio's  distinction  in  the  history  of  art  becomes  quite  comprehensible.  Many 
later  contemporaries,  scholars,  or  rivals,  of  the  same  century,  equaled  him  in 
naturalistic  details,  but  none  of  them  attained  his  composure  and  his  reserve.  In 
all  the  compositions,  so  far  in  question,  of  either  period,  the  life-size  scale  of  the 
individual  figures,  and  large  dimensions  of  the  entire  works,  are  very  important 
elements  of  the  effect. 

Other  Frescoes  of  the  Brancacci  Chapel.— Two  of  the  frescoes,  in  the  Brancacci 
Chapel,  are  by  Filippino  Lippi  (fs  IB  pS'no  lep'5).  Others  are  ascribed  traditionally, 
but  without  exact  certainty,  to  an  artist  named  Masolino  (mii  so  le'  no). 

Masolino.— Certain  pictures  by  Masolino,  little  known  to  art  students,  and 
rarely  quoted  (at  Castiglione  d'Olona  [ciis  teel  yo' mT  ddlo'mTl,  near  Milan),  show 
him  to  be  a  predecessor  of  Masaccio  in  many  of  the  innovations  ascribed  to  the 
latter,  and  furnish  a  connecting  link  in  the  curious  gap  between  the  styles  of  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries  (186). 

Benozzo  Gozzoli  (1424-1496  ?). — We  may  now  return  to  the 
Campo  Santo,  in  Pisa,  to  notice  other  works  of  the  15th  century 
style.  Among  these,  and  among  the  most  famous  in  Italy,  are  the 
frescoes  by  Benozzo  Gozzoli  (ban  of  so  got'  so  le),  a  Florentine.  The 
much  quoted  "Story  of  Noah,"  is  a  fine  illustration  of  the  art  of 
the  period.  Although  many  years  later  than  the  "Tribute  Money," 
it  shows  no  advance  as  to  methods,  and  in  some  Avays  is  a  retro- 
gression, as  compared  with  the  work  of  Masaccio's  superior  person- 


250  FIFTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING. 

ality.  The  same  remark  applies  to  the  illustration  18  7,  a  fair  t\'pe 
in  photograph  of  15th  century  Italian  style. 

Characteristics  of  15th  Century  Style.— It  is  a  general  charac- 
teristic of  loth  century  frescoes,  aside  from  Masaccio's  works,  to 
overload  the  foreground  with  figures,  and  to  overload  the  back- 
ground with  details.  The  delight  in  the  newly  discovered  arts  of 
naturalistic  detail,  is  an  apparent  cause  of  this  excess,  and  atones 
for  it.  The  vigorous  design  of  some  figures  contrasts  with  a  quaint 
awkwardness  in  other  cases. 

Bible  Scenes  in  Local  Costumes. — Bible  scenes  are  represented 
Avith  the  costumes  and  local  surroundings  of  the  contemporary 
Italian  x:)eriod.  This  habit,  although  foreign  to  our  own  concep- 
tions, illustrates  an  interesting  phase  of  Italian  Biblical  art.  The 
subjects  were  so  much  a  part  of  the  every-day  life  and  learning  of 
the  people,  that  they  did  not  care  to  give  them  foreign  costumes  and 
foreign  local  surroundings.  It  apx^ears  also  that  the  artists  found 
in  the  traditional  subjects  an  excuse  for  painting  the  life  around 
them ;  and  certainly  one  great  interest  of  the  Italian  j3ictures  of 
this  time  is  the  knowledge  they  afford  of  the  period  itself. 

The  Frescoes  by  Ghirlandajo  (gheer  lan  da'yo)  (1119-14:94),  in 
Santa  Maria  Novella,  in  Florence,  are  another  important  series  of 
this  j)eriod.  Aside  from  many  other  works  of  importance,  may  be 
mentioned  the  series  of  frescoes  bv  15th  centurv  artists,  which 
decorate  the  lower  walls  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  in  the  Vatican. 
At  206,  the  location  of  these  pictures  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  may 
be  seen  just  above  the  painted  tapestries. 

The  Following  Additional  Names  of  the  Florentine  School  are  too  important  to 
be  passed  without  mention  :  Filippo  Lippi  (1412-1469) ;  Verocchio  (1432-1488),  also  a 
sculptor  (p.  205,  and  Xo.  150)  ;  Lucca  Signorelli  (loo'  kah  seen  yo  rel'l?)  (1441-1524) ; 
Perugino  (per  00  jee' no)  (1446-1524);  Sandro  Botticelli  (bot  e  cliel'le)  (1449-1510); 
Filippino  Lippi  (felepS'nO)  (1459-1504).  V(*rocchio  was  the  master  of  Leonardo 
da  Vinci.  A  painting  is  shown  at  the  Academy  in  Florence  in  which  an  angel's 
head  is  said  to  be  the  work  of  the  pupil.  Perugino,  the  master  of  Eaphael,  is 
represented  by  188.  The  view  is  especially  important  as  reminder  of  the  archi- 
tectural place  and  significance  of  all  Italian  frescoes.  Ghirlandajo,  above  men- 
tioned, was  the  master,  in  painting,  of  Michael  Angelo.  One  of  his  frescoes  is 
shown  at  189.     190  is  a  Madonna  by  Filippo  Lippi. 

It  is  a  general  law  of  art  development  .that  the  study  and  knowledge  of  con- 
crete form  have  preceded  that  of  surface  design  as  regards  modeling,  and  shading. 
Should  any  one  be  disposed  to  doubt  the  science  in  design  of  the  15th  century 
Italians,   let   the   equestrian   statues  by  Donatello   and  Verocchio    be    considered 


i88.  FRESCOES  BY  PERUGINO,  MERCHANTS'  EXCHANGE  (Cambio),  PERUGIA. 


FIFTEENTH     CE:NTLrRY      ITALIAN     PAINTING.  253 

(Nos.  149,  150).  Let  it  also  be  remembered,  aside  from  photographic  short-comings, 
that  any  reproductions,  in  small  size  and  without  color,  must  be  unfair  to  the 
original  paintings.  The  illustrations  of  nil-paintings  are,  however,  superior  in 
eflfect  to  the  views  of  larger  pictures,  whose  details  are  more  diminished  by  the 
reproductions.  A  picture  of  small  dimensions  appears  to  better  advantage  in  a 
small  printed  illustration  than  a  life-size  composition. 

Oil-paintings  began  at  this  time  to  be  more  generally  made.  The 
art  of  oil-painting  found  its  way  to  Italy  by  way  of  Naples  from  the 
Flemish  School  of  the  Van  Eycks  (ikes).  Oil  had  been  used  as  a 
medium  for  color  before  this  time,  and  the  invention  of  the  Van 
Eycks  apparently  related  to  a  mixture  with  elements  which  made 
the  art  more  practical  by  causing  the  colors  to  dry  more  rapidly. 

This  Increased  Use  of  oil-painting  is  especially  related  to  a 
larger  demand  for  panel  pictures — that  is,  for  portable  paintings,  as 
distinct  from  wall  decorations.  This  again  may  find  its  explanation 
in  an  increased  production  for  private  ownership.  Panel  pictures 
were,  however,  painted  for  altar-pieces  in  all  periods.  Wood  was 
more  generally  employed  than  canvas  for  the  panel  pictures  of 
this  time,  but  both  surfaces  were  used. 

Comparative  Merits  of  Oil-paintings  and  Frescoes. — The  oil- 
paintings  of  the  15th  century  (examples  at  Nos.  190,  191)  are  gen- 
erally religious  in  subject.  Their  smaller  dimensions,  and  the  inex- 
perience in  the  technical  methods  involved,  render  these  paintings 
relatively  inferior  to  the  wall-paintings  of  the  same  period. 

School  of  Padua. — During  the  later  15th  century  the  town  of 
Padua  produced  a  remarkable  school  of  art,  headed  by  Andrea 
Mantegna  (man  tan' ya)  (1431-1506).  His  greatest  work  is  the 
series  of  nine  canvases  representing  "  The  Triumph  of  Caesar," 
now  at  Hampton  Court  Palace,  in  England.  Mantegna's  art  is  some- 
what hard  in  its  outlines,  but  is  otherwise  a  wonderful  revelation  of 
the  science  and  study  of  the  15th  century. 

School  of  Venice. — During  this  same  period,  and  largely  under 
Paduan  influence,  the  beginnings  of  the  later  Venetian  School  were 
made,  but  these  so  immediately  preceded  the  higher  development 
of  Venetian  art,  that  brief  mention  of  them  may  be  connected  with 
it  subsequently. 

The  Venetian,  Giovanni  Bellini  (jo  van'e  bel  le'ne),  was  a  scholar 
of  Mantegna,  and  the  illustration  at  2 1 1  will  indicate  some  qualities 
of  the  work  of  that  master,  as  well  as  those  of  his  pupil. 


2b  i 


FIFTEEXTK     CENTURY     ITALIAN     FA  INT  I XG. 


Importance  of  Florence. — Aside  from  the  schools  just  named,  Italian  art  in  gen- 
eral converged  toward  Florence  in  the  15th  century,  and  also  radiated  thence. 
Siena  had  rivaled  the  precedence  of  Giotto  for  a  moment  with  the  name  of 
Duocio  (dew'chi  yd),  but  did  not  subsequently  equal  the  promise  given  by  this 
isolated  genius.  Perugia,  where  Raphael's  teacher  was  long  resident,  became  in 
art  pi  dependency  or  connection  of  Florence.  At  this  time  there  were  no  artists 
of  gi'eat  distinction  in  Rome,  in  Southern  Italy,  or  in  Northern  Italy,  aside  from 
the  Schools  of  Padua  and  A'enice.*  Rome,  at  all  times  in  the  history  of  Italian 
art,  has  owed  her  great  artists  to  the  surrounding  Italian  States. 

It  was  from  the  Florentine  School  of  the  15th  century  that  the  great  artists 
developed  who  made  the  glory  of  Roman  art  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th  cent- 
ury. As  there  was  no  later  important  development  from  the  Paduan  School  of 
the  15th  century,  except  influences  on  Venice,  and  as  the  Venetian  painters  only 
begin  to  assume  importance  toward  the  opening  of  the  16th  century,  it  is  clear 
that  the  Florentine  art  is  that  to  which  a  summary  view  of  the  15th  century  should 
especially  attach  itself.  To  appreciate  its  virtues  and  beauties,  the  student  should 
especially  consider  the  reliefs  of  the  Robbias  and  of  Ghiberti  (147,  148).  Engrav- 
ings of  these  are  free  from  the  unfair  impressions  which  engravings  of  colored 
paintings  must  necessarily  convey.  Of  coui'se,  the  word  "Florentine"  covers  the 
Tuscan  district  of  which  this  city  was  the  capital  and  center,  and  the  works  of 
artists  of  the  school  wherever  they  were  summoned  in  Italy. 


NOTES    ON    THE    ILLUSTRATIONS    FOR    ITALIAN    PAINTING    OF    THE    15TH 

CENTURY. 

(185  191,  inclusive.) 

In  contrasting  185-191  with  types  for  the  14th  century,  177-184,  the  essential 
distinction  lies  in  the  effort  of  the  loth  century  to  realize  a  naturalistic  effect. 
In  facial  expressions,  posing  of  the  figure,  and  accessories  of  all  kinds,  this  one  dis- 
tinction is  the  important  one,  however  quaint  the  imitation  of  nature  may  appear 
in  certain  cases.     Compare  the  backgrounds  of  187,  189  with  those  of  177,  179. 

In  oil-paintings  (Xos.  190,  191)  the  hard  outlines,  absence  of  shading,  etc.,  are 
to  be  understood  as  characteristics  of  a  school  of  art  developed  from  the  practice 
of  wall  decoration. 

Considering  that  the  school  of  art  in  question  directly  preceded  the  perfection 
of  the  16th  century  (types  192-221,  pp.  225-263),  the  illustrations  may  also  serve, 
by  contrast  with  these,  to  explain  its  merits,  and  the  inventive  genius  of  its  great 
artists.  Much  of  the  science  of  this  greater  period  was,  however,  laboriously 
developed  in  the  15th  century,  and  lies  hidden  under  the  frequently  quaint  and 
sometimes  awkward   appearance  of  its   paintings.     For   this  science  the  works  of 

*  The  word  "  school "  is  used  by  ooinmoii  consent  to  indicate  a  group  of  artists  centering 
about  some  one  locality,  to  which  a  distinct  style  can  be  attributed.  The  "style"  is,  of  course, 
a  general  resomblanco  resulting  from  local  methods  and  tastes,  which  influenced  all  the  artists 
01  the  locality,  and  go  produced  some  traits  of  general  resemblance  distinct  from  the  individual 
character  of  each  particiilar  artist.  Sometimes  such  a  style  or  scliool  was  produced  by  the  indi- 
vidual genius  of  some  one  artist  of  such  influence  and  popularity  that  others  attached  them- 
selves to  his  studio,  became  his  assistants,  and  reflected  his  peculiarities.  In  such  cases  the 
word  "  school "  explains  itself,  and  from  these  cases  it  has  extended  and  expanded  to  the  broader 
and  more  important  sense,  often  covering  an  entire  century  or  an  entire  district. 


iCq      GHIRLANDAJO.     THE  VISITATION.     From  the  Frescoes  in  Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence- 


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SIXTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING.  257 

the  sculptors  are  especially  significant.  The  real  founders  of  the  painting  art  of 
the  16th  century  were  Ghiberti,  Donatello,  Verocchiu,  and  Luca  della  Robbia  (pp. 
203,  204).  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Raphael  were  all  expert 
sculptors. 

The  most  satisfactory  representations  of  the  Italian  art  of  the  15th  century 
are  the  reliefs  of  the  Ghiberti  Gates.  This  is  not  only  on  account  of  their  indi- 
vidual perfection,  but  also  because  engravings  of  reliefs  are  more  satisfactory 
illustrations  than  engravings  of  paintings. 


ITALIAN   PAINTING   OF    THE    16TH    CENTURY    RENAISSANCE. 

LEONARDO    DA    VINCI    (1452-1519). 

The  Transition. — It  has  been  observed  that  the  15th  century  style  did  not 
develop  till  the  close  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  century.  The  development  of  the 
loth  century  style  slightly  anticipates,  in  its  earliest  examples,  the  beginnings  of 
the  16th  century.  Some  artists  of  the  older  generation  continued  to  work  in  the 
older  style  after  the  new  one  had  developed.  Others  of  the  older  generation,  who 
survived,  were  more  accessible  to  the  new  influences.  In  this  case,  the  transition 
epoch  has  the  complex  and  manifold  aspects  which  the  individual  details  of 
a  transition  naturally  exhibit,  and  which  are  so  strikingly  absent  in  the  rise  of 
the  14:th  century  and  15th  century  styles.  Still,  on  the  whole,  the  art  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  may  be  considered  as  an  abrupt  and  rapid  development 
of  all  that  subsequently  distinguished  the  art  of  the  16th  century  from  its 
predecessor. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci  was  a  Florentine,  whose  birth-year  falls  just 
&rter  the  middle  of  the  15th  century,  1452.  His  studies  were  not 
confined  to  painting  alone,  and  in  this  art  also  he  was  given  to 
exercises  and  problems  distinct  from  the  creation  of  works  for  the 
public,  which  occupied  him  for  many  years  of  his  life.  His  greatest 
and  epoch-making  picture,  the  "Last  Supper"  (192),  was  not 
finisiied  till  1-498.  This  date,  which  so  closely  approaches  the 
opening  of  the  16th  century,  allows  us  to  consider  the  picture  as 
the  first  great  work  of  tlu  lOth  century  ctyle. 

The  "  Last  Supper." — For  the  interesting  details  of  Leonardo's  life, 
reference  should  be  made  to  the  "  Lives  of  the  Painters,"  by  Vasari 
(p.  238).  Leonardo  had  been  for  some  time  in  the  service  of  the 
Duke  of  Milan,  Ludovico  Sforza  (loodo'veeko  sfort'sa),  when  this 
picture  was  undertaken.  It  is  in  the  refectory  (dining-room)  of  the 
Convent  of  Santa  Maria  delle  Qrazie  (del  lay  gratze'a),  in  Milan. 
In  Italian  frescoes,  the  individual  figures  are  usually  life-size.  Here 
they   are    double   life-size,   and   the   composition   has   corresponding 

.ttimensions.     The  picture  has  suffered  to  sych  an  extent  from  sub- 

/ 


258  SIXTEENTH     CE.VTUliY     ITALIAN     PAINTIXG. 

sequent  restorations,  that  none  of  the  faces  can  nuv.-  be  considered 
as  original  work  Notwithstanding  this  damage,  the  general  scheme 
hL'tff"?  '  T,  «-«P°^ition,  is  well  preserved  and  of  astound- 

mg   eftect.     The    ongmal    designs   for  most   of   the   heads  of   the 

head  of  the  Saviour  is  m  the  Gallery  of  Milan. 

«uin„  perioa,  is  leplaced   by  a  clear  and   dignified  comnositinn      n^.  ■  .        ^ 

mgnu,-  ancT  repose   couirCa,^;/T„;i.ttrr5  "  --;~^.  ■"'^ 
attempted  to  represent   the  dramatic  atritaftrl,  f       /  ''  "°    """   ''^'' 

as  the  one  chosen  h,  the  "  LasrCpe^  tZe  r^^^"""'  "'  "^'"  ^  '"°'"^"' 

The   Battle   of  the   Standard.- The   "Last  Supper"  is  the  only 
w^l-pamting  which  Leonardo  completed.    A  commission  which  w^ 

ecut  d,  but   part   of  the  design  of  the  cartoon  which  was  made  for 
t   has  been   preserved   by  a  later  copy  (193).*    The   decoration  of 

fnd  Mich  °T'',""  '""''•''"'  "*  *'"^  *'™^'  ^"''  ^°th  Leonardo 
and  Michael  Angelo  were  con.  missioned  with  designs  for  it  Polit- 
ical troubles  intervened  which  prevented  the  execution  of  the 
paintings. 

has'^a'lto" f  "'"^  So.diers."-The  design  of  Michael  Angelos  cartoon 
has  also  been  partially  preserved  by  a  subsequent  copy  icnown  as 
the  "Bathing  Soldiers."  These  cartoons  were  publicly  e!iibited,  and 
gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  the  studies  of  the  Florentine  artists. 
The  final  per  ection  of  the  Italian  painting  may  be  dated  from 
them,  as  the  "Last  Supper"  was  remote  in  localitv  from  the  most 
active  center  of  Italian  art.  A  comparison  of  the  illustration  for 
Leonardos  cartoon  with  that  for  the  fresco  of  Benozzo  Gozzoli 
(lb.),  will  .show  Its  epoch-making  character.  The  latter  had  been 
executed  not  many  years  before. 

i-anfor""'!  ""''  f  "T'  ^"^''"-^^  «"'='''»<=•  Angelo  was  twenty-thi^e  years  the 
jan.or  ..  Leonardo,  it  occas.on,,-,  the  latter  great  chagrin  after  this  contest,  that 


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SIXTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING.  261 

his  own  art  should  have  been  approached  or  equaled.  He  was  doubtless  conscious 
that  the  progress  made  by  the  Florentine  artists  in  general,  during  the  preceding 
twenty-five  years,  was  directly  or  indirectly  largely  owing  to  his  own  studies ;  in 
other  words,  that  he  himself  had  made  the  weapons  for  his  rivals. 

Subsequent  Career. — A  visit  soon  after  made  to  Rome,  found  Michael  Angelo 
also  engaged  here  in  important  commissions,  which  were  lacking  at  the  time  in 
his  own  case.  It  was  only  a  few  years  later  that  Raphael's  light  also  began  to 
shine  at  Rome  (1508),  and  Leonardo  ultimately  left  Italy  for  France,  probably 
because  he  felt  slighted  by  the  preference  accorded  the  younger  men,  who  had 
profited  by  his  epoch-making  studies. 

Life  and  Pursuits. — This  great  artist  was  distinguished  by  proficiency  in  almost 
all  the  branches  of  science  cultivated  by  the  16th  century.  Much  of  his  time  was 
also  devoted  to  literary  labor.  His  work  on  the  theory  of  painting  and  of  colors 
is  still  considered,  in  our  own  times,  the  masterpiece  of  related  literature.  He 
was  especially  distinguished  as  a  civil  and  military  engineer.  It  is  probable  that 
Leonardo's  wonderful  versatility  explains  the  deficiency  of  important  commissions 
in  painting  after  the  time  of  the  "Last  Supper."  As  he  was  actively  engaged  in 
many  studies  and  pursuits  besides  that  of  painting,  those  who  were  more  con- 
stantly devoted  to  the  one  pursuit  were  probably  more  quoted  at  the  moment 
in  connection  with  it.  The  Duke  of  Milan,  who  had  been  his  patron,  was  expelled 
by  a  French  invasion,  in  the  year  after  the  "Last  Supper"  was  finished  ;  and  this 
personal  misfortune  which  obliged  Leonardo,  as  a  man  of  mature  age,  to  seek  new 
connections  and  employment,  is  also  an  explanation  in  this  connection.  He  went 
to  France  by  royal  invitation,  and  lived  there  till  death  in  the  king's  service,  but 
no  important  works  are  quoted  for  these  last  years  of  his  life. 

Portrait  of  "  Mona  Lisa."— The  most  famous  panel-painting  by 
Leonardo,  is  the  portrait  of  "  Mona  Lisa,"  in  the  Louvre.  This  pict- 
ure was  purchased  by  the  French  King  Francis  I.  during  the  artist's 
hfe-time.  The  portrait  represents  the  wife  of  one  of  Leonardo's 
friends.  Her  family  name,  Gioconda  (jo  con'  da),  has  given  a 
second  name  to  the  picture  which  is  thus  known  as  "La  Joconde," 
"the  joyous  one,"  a  French  mistranslation,  based  on  the  family 
name.  The  colors  in  this  painting  have  darkened  to  an  extent 
peculiarly  disadvantageous  to  photography.  There  are  other  famous 
Leonardos  in  the  Louvre,  but  the  whole  number  in  Europe  is 
small. 

Technical  Improvements.— These  are  apparent  in  all  ways  when  Leonardo's 
pictures  are  contrasted  with  those  of  earlier  date.  The  hard  outlines  and  un- 
shaded designs  of  the  earlier  Italian  oil-paintings  are  supplanted  by  the  arts  of 
modeling,  shading,  and  fusion  of  coloring  which  through  him  became  the  com- 
mon property  of  later  art,  our  own  included.  (Compare  187  with  194.)  Even  the 
photographs  of  his  oil-paintings  exhibit  these  distinctions  from  earlier  works.  A 
picture  by  his  pupil  Luini  (loo'ne)  (194)  shows  the  improvements  of  Leonardo's 
Works  in  oil. 


2  62  SIXTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING. 

RAPHAEL    SANTI    (1483-1520). 

The  year  1508,  ten  years  after  the  date  of  the  "Last  Supper," 
and  four  years  after  the  date  of  the  celebrated  cartoons  just  men- 
tioned, was  the  thue  Avhen  Pope  Juhus  11.  caused  to  be  undertakei 
the  waU-paintings  executed  by  Raphael  and  by  Michael  Angelo  it^ 
the  Papal  Palace  of  the  A'atican  at  Rome.  The  Sistine  Chapel  b 
the  Pope's  chapel  in  this  palace,  and  here  are  found  the  celebrated 
frescoes  by  Michael  Angelo — on  the  ceiling  the  "  Story  of  Genesis," 
and  at  the  chancel  end  of  the  chapel  the  "Last  Judgment,"  which 
was  painted  under  a  later  Pontificate.  Raphael's  work  was  the 
decoration  in  fresco  of  the  Papal  office  and  adjoining  rooms  on  the 
third  story  of  the  Vatican.  He  subsequently  decorated  one  of  the 
galleries  opening  on  the  court  about  which  the  palace  is  built.  Both 
series  of  frescoes  were  completed  under  the  Pontificate  of  the  fol- 
lowing Pope,  Leo  X.  Although  generally  quoted  as  the  greatest 
patron  of  Italian  art,  Julius  II.  deserves  this  distinction. 

Raphael's  Period. — The  time  of  these  jDictures  corresponds,  in 
English  history,  to  the  period  of  Henry  YIII. ;  in  Spanish  history, 
to  the  period  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  ;  in  French  history,  to  the 
period  of  Louis  XII.  and  of  Francis  I.  ;  in  German  history,  to  the 
period  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian.  It  is  the  time  just  after  the 
first  maritime  discoveries  in  America  and  India,  and  just  preceding 
the  Spanish  colonial  conquests  in  Mexico  and  Peru.  The  j)eriod 
corresponds  in  its  vitality  and  productive  spirit  to  the  somewhat 
later  time  of  Shakespeare  in  England,  which  was  largely  influenced 
and  inspired  by  it.* 

Raphael  was  Born  in  1483,  at  Urbino  (c5or  be' no),  a  citj^  heading 
a  small  civic  principality  in  central  Itah',  but  his  earh'  instruction 
at  Perugia  (pa  rc5o'  ja)  was  under  an  artist  of  Florentine  connec- 
tions and  tendencies  (Perugino,  see  p.  250,  and  No.  188),  and  he 
lived  himself  at  Florence  some  years,  completing  there  his  artistic 
development.  His  authenticated  wall-pictures,  aside  from  one  fresco 
in  Perugia,  all  date  after  the  beginning  of  this  Roman  residence, 
and  are  all  in  Rome. 

Raphael's  Three  "Manners." — His  oil-paintings  (panel  pictures)  are 
divided  into  three    classes,  corresponding  respectively  to  his  succes- 

*  The  matter  relating  to  the  general  history  of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  and  to  its  influence  04 
Europe,  is  especially  in  point  here  (pp.  i;{,  117,  118,  196). 


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SIXTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING.  265 

sive  residences  in  Perugia,  Florence,  and  Rome,  and  designated  as 
belonging  to  the  "  Peruginesque,"  "  Florentine,"  and  "  Roman  "  man- 
ners. On  account  of  the  great  number  of  Raphael  Madonnas,  these 
styles  are  most  easily  noted  and  distinguished  in  this  class  of 
works. 

The  Peruginesque  Manner  exhibits  in.  some  cases  somewhat  childish  or  youtli- 
ful  expressions  in  the  faces,  and  in  its  later  works  (196)  has  a  peculiarly  solemn 
and  serious  religious  character,  which  reflects  the  tendency  of  the  period  in  cen- 
tral Italy,  remote  from  the  more  worldly  interests  and  stirring  life  of  Florence. 
Here  established  in  1506,  *  Raphael  executed  a  large  number  of  pictures  during 
the  two  years  preceding  the  beginning  of  the  Roman  period. 

The  Florentine  and  Roman  Manners. — The  Floi'entine  manner  is  more  vivacious 
and  less  serious  than  the  Peruginesque.  The  large  architectural  commissions  of 
the  Roman  joeriod  show  their  influence  in  the  somewhat  more  staid  and  mature 
character  of  the  Madonnas  in  the  ' '  Roman "  manner.  The  difl'erences  are  not 
always  marked,  but  pictures  like  the  Sistine  Madonna  and  the  Foligno  (fo  leen'  yo) 
Madonna  were  not  painted  before  the  Roman  period,  and  in  these  the  distinction 
is  quite  clear. 

Notes  on  the  Raphael  Madonnas. — The  only  Raphael  Madonna  in  Rome  is  the 
"Foligno,"  or  Madonna  del  Donatore  (don  a  to' ra)  of  the  Vatican  Gallery  of  oil- 
paintings.  Its  names  are  derived  from  the  town  for  which  it  was  originally 
painted,  and  from  the  donor  {donatore),  whose  portrait  appears  in  the  picture. 
The  introduction  of  such  figures  in  paintings  of  the  Madonna  corresponds  to  the 
ideal  stand-point  of  the  Christian  Italian  art.  The  "Sistine"  Madonna — in  the 
Dresden  G-allery  since  the  middle  of  the  18th  century — was  originally  painted  for 
the  Convent  of  San  Sisto,  in  Piacenza  (p5  a  chen' zil),  whence  its  name.  The 
picture  represents  an  apparition,  or  dream,  in  which  the  Virgin,  attended  by 
Saint  Barbara,  was  said  to  have  revealed  herself  to  Pope  Saint  Sixtus  IV.  The 
most  important  Madonnas  in  Florence  are  those  known  as  the  "  Granduca " 
(grandoo'kii)  and  "Seggiola"  (sej  6  o'lii),  in  the  Pitti  Palace,  and  the  "  Cardellino  " 
(car  del  le' no),  in  the  Uffizi.  The  "Granduca"  (196)  is  thus  named  after  a  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  who  carried  this  painting  with  him  on  his  journeys  as  his  altar- 
picture.  The  word  "seggiola"  means  chair.  The  same  Madonna  (195)  is  indifl'er- 
ently  called  the  Madonna  della  Sedia  (sa'de  a),  or  "of  the  Chair."  The  "Cardel- 
lino "  Madonna  is  thus  named  from  the  goldfinch  held  by  the  Infant  Saviour.  A 
picture  similar  to  the  last  is  the  "Belle  Jardiniere"  (zhar  din  yar' )  of  the  Louvre. 
The  Madonna  "with  the  diadem"  is  another  famous  Raphael  of  the  Louvre. 
There  are  several  fine  Raphael  Madonnas  in  England  ;  that  of  the  Bridge  water 
Collection  is  the  most  quoted.  In  the  gallery  at  Madrid  is  the  "Pearl";  in  St. 
Petersburg  is  the  "  House  of  Alba."  Several  Madonnas  are  named  like  this  one, 
from  the  house  or  family  which  formerly  owned  them;  thus,  the  "Colonna" 
<colo'na)  and  the  "  Solly"  in  Berlin,  the  "Tempi"  (tera'pe)  in  Munich,  etc.  The 
Madonnas  quoted  are  among  the  more  celebrated,  but  in  the  entire  number 
painted  by  Raphael  there  is  not  one  which  does  not  claim  distinction  for  nobility 
of  conception   and  exquisite  workmanship.     The   "Solly"  Madonna  in  Berlin  dis- 

*  His  first  visit  to  Florence  was  in  1504:. 


266  SIXTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING. 

putes  with  a  similar  picture  in  Perugia  the  distinction  of  being  the  eariiest  known 
work  by  Rapliael.  It  was  painted  when  lie  was  about  fifteen  years  old.  The 
youth  of  the  artist,  and  his  dependence  at  this  time  on  the  earlier  style  of  the 
loth  century,  are  apparent  in  it,  and  make  this  picture  interesting  by  contrast 
with  his  more  perfected  works. 

Of  the  Madonna  Subject  it  may  be  said  that  it  represented  in  Italian  art  not 
only  the  Virgin  Mary  in  particular,  but  also  the  sanctity  and  ideal  of  maternity 
in  general.  Its  constant  repetition,  so  far  from  being  wearisome,  is  an  expression 
of  all  that  made  the  Italian  art  beautiful  and  great,  and  of  its  thoroughly  popular 
character  and  origin.  In  the  Greek  statues  and  in  the  Italian  paintings,  the  recur- 
rence of  typical  subjects  demonstrates  a  constant  popular  demand  in  all  localities, 
and  through  many  generations,  to  which  the  artists  responded.  To  express  and 
meet  this  demand  they  existed.  The  great  technical  perfection  in  Greek  and 
Italian  art,  the  ultimate  freedom  and  rapidity  of  execution,  the  indifference  to  the 
petty,  trivial,  and  accidental  aspects  of  nature,  are  all  results  of  a  training  which 
was  developed  in  connection  with  a  limited  range  of  subjects.  The  men  of  sub- 
ordinate genius  could  at  least  copy  their  betters ;  for  the  subject  itself,  rather 
than  individual  originality,  was  the  thing  mainly  sought.  The  men  of  greatest 
genius  were  not  obliged  to  create  their  subjects.  These  were  ready  at  hand,  and 
it  Avas  only  a  question  how  to  improve  and  supplement  methods  already  prac- 
ticed, how  to  add  some  few  new  elements  to  a  conception  already  existing. 

Criticism  of  the  Raphael  Madonnas.  —  The  Raphael  Madonnas 
are  distinguished  among  all  Italian  pictures  of  their  class ;  as  against 
earlier  ones,  by  perfection  of  design  and  color ;  as  against  later  ones, 
by  purity  and  dignity  of  feeling  ;  and  as  against  contemporary  ones, 
by  a  peculiar  grace  and  balance  of  figures  and  outlines.  Symmetry 
of  arrangement  is  a  uniform  feature  in  Raphael's  art,  and  is  the 
distinguishing  feature  of  the  great  wall  compositions  Avhich  were 
the  most  important  works  of  his  life. 

Frescoes  of  the  Vatican.  —  The  Papal  office  already  mentioned 
(p.  26  2)  was  known  as  the  Camera  della  Segnatura  (kam'a  ra  del' la 
sail  ya  too' ra),  i.e.,  the  "Room  of  Signature."  Here  are  the  four 
wall-paintings  representing  "Theology,"  "Philosophy,"  "Poetry,"  and 
"  Jurisprudence  " — to  which  round  medallions  with  allegorical  female 
figures  (Sibjds)  on  the  ceiling  respectively  correspond. 

Traits  of  the  Vatican  Frescoes.— The  great  charm  of  these  pictures  is  their 
freedom  from  tedious  allegory,  the  spirit  of  beauty  wliicli  tempered  the  abstract 
nature  of  the  subjects,  and  the  freedom  of  conception  which  refused  to  be  bound 
by  the  more  obvious  mechanical  expedients  offering  themselves.  For  instance, 
there  is  no  effort  to  represent  the  entire  body  of  distinguished  theologians, 
philosophers,  poets,  and  jurists.  Only  as  many  figures  are  introduced  in  each 
painting  as  will  accommodate  themselves  to  large  proportions  in  the  figures  them- 
selves,   and  to  an  easy  and    uncrowded   spacing   of   these  figures  in  or  near  the 


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SIXTEENTH     C  E  N  T  U  li  Y     ITALIAN     PAINTING.  269 

foreground.      The    architectural    symmetry   of   arrangement  is   varied   by  natural 
poses  and  well-studied  diversity  of  action. 

The  "Poetry,"  chosen  for  illustration  (197),  is  also  known  as  the  "Parnassus" 
(the  Mountain  of  the  Muses).  Apollo,  in  the  center,  is  playing  the  violin.  This 
snows  that  he  is  introduced  as  a  symbol  of  musical  inspiration  and  culture  for 
modern  times,  whereas  the  classic  lyre  would  associate  him  with  the  extinct 
beliefs  of  Paganism.  Around  him  are  grouped  the  Muses.  These  also  are  designed 
without  reference  to  external  imitations  of  Antique  conceptions.  On  the  left. 
Homer  is  recognized  by  his  evident  blindness,  and  Dante  by  his  profile  and  cowl. 
Some  other  names  are  indicated  for  certain  figures,  but  it  is  evident,  from  the 
small  number  introduced,  that  a  pictorial  catalogue  is  not  intended. 

The  Two  Rooms  Adjoining'  the  Camera  della  Segnatura  are 
also  decorated  with  frescoes  by  Raphael.  In  the  "  second  "  room  we 
find  the  subjects  known  as  the  "Overthrow  of  Heliodorus"  (198), 
the  "Miracle  of  Bolsena,"  the  "Meeting  of  Pope  Leo  I.  and  Attila," 
and  the  "Liberation  of  Peter."  The  most  important  fresco  of  the 
"third"  room  is  the  "Incendio  del  Borgo "  (199).  The  last  three 
mentioned  were  executed  during  the  pontificate  of  Leo  X.,  who  suc- 
ceeded Julius  II.  in  1513. 

The  Story  of  Heliodorus  (198)  is  found  in  the  Second  Book  of  the  Maccabees, 
in  the  Apocrypha.  It  relates  to  the  attempt  of  the  Gx'eek  ruler  of  Syria  to  intro- 
duce the  Pagan  Greek  worship  into  the  Hebrew  Temple.  Heliodorus  was  the 
agent  employed  to  accomplish  this  profanation.  The  attempt  was  foiled,  and  led 
to  a  revolt  of  the  Jews,  by  which  the  independence  of  their  State  was  established 
under  the  rule  of  the  Maccabees,  as  High-priests.  On  one  side  we  see  the  appari- 
tion described  in  the  Apocrypha,  and  the  overthrow  of  Heliodorus ;  on  the  other, 
Pope  Julius  II.  is  borne  in  a  sedan-chair  and,  with  his  attendants,  beholds  the 
miracle.  The  picture  is  an  allegory  relating  to  the  efforts  of  the  Pope  to  protect 
Italy  from  the  invasions  of  the  French. 

The  "  Incendio  del  Borgo,"  or  Pire  of  the  Borgo  (199).— The  Borgo  was  a 
district  of  the  city  of  Piome.  Tradition  related  that  a  conflagration  had  been 
extinguished  here  by  Pope  Leo  IV.  in  a  miraculous  manner.  The  choice  of  sub- 
ject had  reference,  as  had  also  the  fresco  "Leo  I.  and  Attila,"  to  the  name  of  the 
reigning  Pope,  whose  predecessors  of  the  same  name  were  thus  commemorated. 
The  literary  enthusiasms  of  the  Italians  of  the  Renaissance  are  curiously  illustrated 
by  this  picture,  which  contains  a  group  on  the  left  representing  Aeneas  bearing  off 
his  father,  Anchises,  from  the  burning  ruins  of  Troy. 

The  Stanze.  —  The  above  list  relates  to  the  noted  works  by 
Raphael,  which  are  generally  known  as  the  Vatican  "  Stanze " 
(stan'zay).*  The  "Battle  of  the  Milvian  Bridge,"  representing  the 
triumph  of  the   Emperor  Constantine   over  his   rival  Licinius,  is  an 

*  The  Italian  word  stanza  (f:ta.n'  zah)  means  room.    Stanze  is  the  plural. 


270  SIXTEENTH     CEXTURY     ITALIAN     PAIXTIXG. 

Important  composition  of  this  series,  in  an  adjacent  department.  It 
was  designed  but  not  colored  by  Raphael. 

"Raphael's  Bible." — On  the  same  stor\^  of  the  Vatican,  near  to 
the  apartments  just  described,  are  the  fresco  decorations  known  as 
the  "Loggie"  (lod'ja).  The  Italian  word  "loggia"  (plural,  loggie)  is 
frequently  applied  in  the  plural  use  to  a  galler}^  of  which  one  side 
is  open  to  the  air.  Such  galleries  surround  the  court  of  the  Vatican 
Palace  on  all  its  stories,  but  only  the  gallery  of  the  second  story, 
facing  one  side  of  the  court,  has  the  decorations  in  question.  The 
wall  opposite  to  the  open  arcades,  which  were  subsequently  glassed 
in,  is  decorated  with  world-renowned  arabesques  which  were  in- 
spired by  Antique  designs,  still  to  be  seen  at  that  time  in  the  ruins 
of  the  Baths  of  Titus,  and  since  destroyed.  The  walls  are  faced  by 
pilasters  at  distances  corresponding  to  the  width  of  the  gallery, 
thus  dividing  it  into  a  series  of  square  compartments,  which  are 
vaulted  with  small  domes.  In  each  of  these  domes  are  four  x)ict- 
ures — making  in  all  a  series  of  fiftj^-two — treating  subjects  mainly 
from  Old  Testament  history.  The  execution  of  the  arabesques  and 
of  these  pictures  was  done  by  Raphael's  assistants,  from  his  draw- 
ings. The  x^ictures  of  the  domes  are  known  as  the  "Loggie"  pict- 
ures; also  as  "Raphael's  Bible."  They  are  famed  for  their  graphic 
simplicity  and  unpretentious,  explicit  design  (illustrations  200, 
201). 

The  Cartoons. — Another  important  commission  executed  iindei' 
Leo  X.  was  a  series  of  Cartoons  for  tapestries ;  ten  subjects  from 
the  New  Testament.  (One  of  these  is  illustrated  at  202.)  The^apes- 
tries  were  executed  in  Flanders,  and  were  hung  on  the  lower  portion 
of  the  wall  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  where  the  painted  tapestry  deco- 
ration is  now  seen  (No.  206).  The  set  was  removed  to  Paris  during 
the  French  Revolution,  and  is  now  placed  in  another  portion  of  the 
Vatican.  The  tapestries  show  those  deviations  from  the  original 
Cartoons  which  artisan  copies  made  in  a  coarse  material  must 
necessarily  exhibit.  The  Cartoons  themselves,  being  Raphael's  own 
work,  have  consequently  a  much  higher  value.  Seven  of  the  original 
ten  have  been  preserved,  and  are  now  exhibited  in  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum,  in  London.  They  were  formerly  in  Hampton 
Court  Palace,  and  were  purchased  by  the  English  King  Charles  L, 
through  the  mediation  of  the  painter  Rubens.  They  had  meantime 
been   for  a  century  in  Brussels,  where  the   original  tapestries  were 


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200.     Raphael.    Abraham  and  the  Angels,  Vatican  Loggie. 


201.     Raphael.    Jacob  and  Laban,  Vatican  Loggie. 


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203.  RAPHAEL.  POPE  LEO  X.  WITH  CARDINALS,  PITTI  GALLERY,  FLORENCE. 


204.     RAPHAEL.     ST.  CECILIA,    BOLOGNA. 


205.     RAPHAEL.     TRANSFIGURATION,   VATICAN, 


SIXTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING.  277 

made,  and  where  some  subsequent  reproductions  were  also  executed, 
which  are  now  scattered  between  Berlin,  Dresden,  and  Madrid. 

In  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Pace  (paiVcha),  in  Rome, 
is  a  single  fresco  by  Raphael,  the  "Four  Sibyls,"  a  picture  of  great 
beauty. 

The  Farnesina  Villa. — The  list  of  Raphael's  mural  paintings  is 
closed  by  mention  of  the  series  in  the  Villa  Farnesina  (far  na  se'na), 
at  Rome.  One  apartment  of  the  Villa  Farnesina  contains  the  famous 
fresco  of  "  The  Triumph  of  Galatea."  This  work  is  by  Raphael's 
own  hand.  In  the  adjacent  gallery  is  the  series  of  frescoes  from 
the  "  Story  of  Cupid  and  Psyche,"  executed  by  scholars  from  his 
designs. 

Of  Portraits  by  Raphael  there  are  several  fine  examples.  One  of 
the  most  noted  is  that  of  the  "  Violin-player,"  in  the  Sciarra-Co- 
lonna  (sha' ra-co  lo' na)  Palace  at  Rome.    See  also  203. 

The  "  Transfiguration." — Beside  the  Madonnas  and  portraits,  there 
are  many  oil-paintings  by  Raphael  of  great  celebrity.  His  latest 
work,  not  entirely  finished  at  his  death,  was  the  "Transfiguration," 
now  in  the  Vatican  Gallery  of  oil-paintings.  The  coloring  of  the 
lower  portion  is  by  a  scholar  (205). 

Criticism  of  the  "  Transfiguration." — The  composition  has  been  criticised  as  having 
a  divided  interest,  because  the  story  of  the  possessed  boy  attracts  more  attention 
than  the  "Transfiguration"  itself.  Tliis  is  doubtless  because  Raphael  felt  the  latter 
subject  to  be  beyond  the  powers  of  art.  He,  therefore,  chose  rather  to  present 
in  a  single  picture,  the  two  events  described  by  the  Bible  narrative  as  having 
occurred  at  the  same  time — the  ' '  Transfiguration  "  and  the  episode  of  the  possessed 
boy  from  whom  the  disciples  could  not  cast  out  the  devil  while  the  Saviour  was 
on  Mount  Tabor.  The  dependence  of  the  Apostles  on  Christ's  bodily  presence  thus 
symbolizes  the  dependence  of  His  disciples  on  His  spiritual  aid. 

The  Picture  of  St.  Cecilia,  in  Bologna  (bo  ion'  ya),  is  another 
fine  illustration  of  the  nobility  of  Raphael's  conceptions  (2  04).  The 
musical  saint  is  not  playing  on  her  instrument.  It  is  the  music  of 
the  angelic  choir  which  absorbs  her  attention,  and  that  of  her  com- 
panions, St.  Paul,  St.  John,  St.  Augustine,  and  Mary  Magdalen. 
Musical  instruments  which  lie  disregarded  under  the  feet  of  this 
group,  emphasize  the  moral  conveyed — the  music  of  Heaven  excels 
that  of  earth. 

Other  Noted  Oil-paintings.—"  Christ  Bearing  the  Cross,"  is  a 
notable  Raphael,  in  Madrid.     Other  specially  notable  works   are  the 


278  SIXTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING. 

"Entombment"  (Borghese  Gallery,  in  Rome);  "Coronation  of  the 
Virgin"  (Vatican  G-allery)  ;  "Vision  of  Ezechiel"  (Pitti  Palace,  Flor- 
ence); "Betrothal  of  Mary  and  Joseph"  (Milan),  also  generally 
known  as  the  "Sposalizio"  (spo  sa  leets' yo). 

MICHAEL    ANGELO    (1475-1564). 

The  Frescoes  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  by  Michael  Angelo  are, 
broadly  speaking,  his  only  work  in  painting  (206,  207).*  He  had 
no  predilection  for  painting  in  oil,  and  his  few  efforts  in  this  direc- 
tion are  regarded  rather  as  interesting  curiosities  than  as  character- 
istic works  of  art.  There  is,  moreover,  only  one  finished  panel 
picture  in  existence  by  his  hand — the  "  Holy  Family,"  of  the  Uffizi 
G-allery,  in  Florence. 

Cartoon  of  "The  Bathing  Soldiers." — A  memorable  work  which 
did  not  attain  completion,  was  foreshadowed  by  the  Cartoon  of  "  The 
Bathing  Soldiers."  This  was  designed  under  the  conditions  noted  at 
p.  258.  The  Cartoon  itself  was  destroyed,  but  survived  through 
a  copy,  subsequently  lost,  which  was  engraved  in  the  17th  century. 

Description  of  the  Cartoon. — The  choice  of  the  episode  is  significant  for  the 
tastes  and  studies  of  the  artist.  In  the  wars  between  Florence  and  Pisa,  a  troop 
of  Florentine  soldiers  had  been  surprised,  while  bathing,  by  a  Pisan  force.  Michael 
Angelo's  proficiency  in  the  design  of  the  nude  form,  and  his  interest  in  anatomic 
study,  led  him  to  select  this  incident  for  his  subject,  and  the  same  proficiency  and 
interest  are  equally  apparent  in  his  works  of  sculpture,  and  in  the  frescoes  of  the 
Sistine  Chapel.  The  contorted  and  twisted  attitudes  which  characterize  this  Car- 
toon, are  also  found  in  his  sculptures,  and  in  the  frescoes  named.  This  tendency 
to  twisted  attitudes  is  partly  explained  bj'  the  desire  to  exercise  the  knowledge  of 
foreshortening,  and  develop  the  science  of  anatomy  which  he  possessed  to  such  a 
wonderful  degree,  but  also  resulted  from  an  uneasy  and  misanthropic  nature 
which  found  vent  in  those  unrestful  and  violent  explosions  of  creative  power. 

Character  of  Michael  Angelo. — Michael  Angelo  is  famed  for  an 
imperious  and  noble  spirit,  for  an  impatient  hatred  of  the  base  and 
petty  failings  of  human  nature,  for  devout,  religious  character,  and 
for  a  tendency  toward  the  colossal  and  the  grandiose  in  his  artistic 
conceptions.  These  characteristics  are  as  apparent  in  the  details  of 
his  life  as  in  the  works  of  his  brush  and  chisel.  The  passionate 
individuality  of  nature  which  his  statues  exhibit  (pp.  204-211),  is 
at  once  their  greatest  charm,  and  the  feature  which  separates  them 

*  The  Sistine  Chapel  is  the  Papal  Chapel  in  the  Palace  of  the  Vatican. 


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SIXTEENTH     C  E  N  T  U  R  T     ITALIAN     PAINTING.  281 

from  the  simple  and  reposeful  conceptions  of  the  Antique.  The 
reliefs  of  Greek  sculpture  frequently  exhibit  violent  attitudes  and 
subjects,  and  in  this  sense  are  remarkably  different  from  the  ma- 
jority of  Antique  statues,  but  the  general  result  of  these  Antique 
figure  compositions  in  relief  is  always  one  of  architectural  balance 
and  repose. 

The  "  Story  of  Genesis." — In  the  frescoes  of  the  Sistine  Chapel, 
Michael  Angelo's  tendencies  toward  the  sublime  and  the  grandiose 
in  art  coincided  with  the  dimensions  of  the  work  and  with  the  sub- 
ject chosen.  The  subjects  of  the  "  Story  of  Genesis,"  which  decorate 
the  ceiling,  were  peculiarly  allied  to  his  own  individual  sympathies 
and  character  (detail  207). 

Subjects  of  the  Ceiling  Frescoes. — Panels  of  alternating  sizes  are  ranged  along 
the  center  of  the  ceiling  with  the  following  subjects : 

The  Creation  of  I^ight. 

The  Creation  of  the  Sun  and  Moon. 

The  Separation  of  the  Waters  of  the  Firmament. 

The  Creation  of  Adam. 

The  Creation  of  Eve. 

The  Temptation  and  Expulsion. 

The  Sacrifice  of  Cajn  and  Abel. 

The  Deluge. 

The  Drunkenness  of  Noah. 

The  male  figures  at  the  angles  of  the  panels  (207)  are  supposed  to  symbolize  the 
architectiaral  forces  of  the  vault,  or  may  be  purely  decorative  adjuncts.  They  are 
in  general  remarkable  examples  of  the  tendency  to  twisted  attitudes  which  has 
been  noted. 

The  vault  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  is  constructed  with  a  series  of  triangular  reces- 
sions corresponding  in  position  to  the  round  arches  of  the  side-windows.  In  these 
recessions  are  groups  representing  the  "  Forefathers  of  Christ,"  i.  e.,  symbolical  forms 
through  which  the  Old  Dispensation  is  represented  as  the  preparation  for  the  New. 
In  the  angular  spaces  of  the  vaulting  which  separate  these  recessions  are  repre- 
sented, in  alternate  arrangement,  "Prophets"  and  "Sibyls."  The  "  Sibyl "  type  had 
been  adopted  by  the  Italians  from  the  ancient  historical  mythology,  as  a  personifi- 
cation of  prophecy.  At  the  four  corners  of  the  vaulting,  where  it  descends  into  the 
angles  of  the  walls,  are  represented  the  "Four  Salvations  of  the  Children  of 
Israel " — the  stories  of  the  Brazen  Serpent,  of  David  and  Goliath,  of  Judith  and 
Holofernes,  and  of  the  punishment  of  Haman. 

The   Year    1508  has  been  already  indicated  (p.  2  6  2)  as  the  time 

of  the  beginning   of  these    ceiling   frescoes.      They  were   completed 

about  1512.     No  assistants  whatever  were  employed. 

"    The    "Last    Judgment." — Of    much    later    date,    and    materially 

different   character,  is   the   picture   of  the  "Last  Judgment,"  at   the 


282  SIXTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING. 

chancel  end   of  the   Sistine   Chapel.    This  was  begun  in  153-1   and 
finished  in  15-1:2,  under  the  pontificate  of  Pope  Paul  III. 

Personal  History. — As  a  patriot,  Michael  Angelo  liad  meantime  lived  to  see  the 
overthrow  of  his  native  Republic  of  Florence  (in  1530),  and  to  witness  the  social 
revolutions  and  the  decline  of  Italian  civilization,  which  internal  dissensions,  com- 
mercial causes,  and  the  invasions  of  foreign  powers  had  combined  to  produce 
(p.  125).  He  himself  had  been  the  engineer  of  the  fortifications  and  chief  con- 
ductor of  the  defense  of  his  native  city  during  the  devastating  siege  which  pre- 
pared and  preceded  its  overthrow  (1529-1530).  The  tombs  of  the  Medici  (Xos.  152, 
153)  were  conceived  by  Michael  Angelo  and  by  his  time  as  the  tombs  of  the  Flor- 
entine Republic. 

In  the  gloom  which  these  disasters  had  produced,  Michael  Angelo  undertook 
the  "Last  Judgment"  in  a  spirit  which  conceived  his  country's  doom  as  having 
befallen  it  in  recompense  of  its  sins  and  in  judgment  of  its  iniquities.  With 
access  of  trouble  and  disappointment  in  life,  the  contortion  of  the  human  figLu-e 
had  become  an  almost  constant  phase  of  his  art.  With  access  of  years,  the  exer- 
cise and  exhibition  of  anatomic  science  had  become  a  species  of  mania. 

Criticism  of  the  "  Last  Judgment." — Thus  we  observe  peculiarities  in  the  "  Last 
Judgment,"  which  are  explained  by  earlier  tendencies,  and  by  subsequent  personal 
and  national  trials.  In  studying  this  joicture,  some  allowance  must  be  made  for 
the  Italian  habit  of  using  bodily  forms  for  the  expression  of  spiritual  ideas.  It 
must  also  be  remembered  that  where  pictorial  art  was  so  constantly  devoted  to 
Biblical  illustration,  the  necessary  inconsistencies  between  spiritual  conceptions  and 
physical  i"epresentations  were  more  easily  overlooked  than  they  could  be  in  our 
own  time.  There  is  not,  however,  any  more  of  this  incongruous  character  in  the 
"Last  Judgment"  than  there  is  in  the  "Paradise  Lost"  of  Milton. 

The  Arrangement  of  the  Painting  conceives  the  Saviour  as  the  Judge,  and 
places  the  Virgin  by  His  side.  In  the  upper  angles  are  groups  of  Angels  with  the 
instruments  of  the  Passion,  the  Cross,  and  the  Pillar  of  Scoui'ging.  A  group  of 
Martyrs  suri'ounds  the  Sariour  and  the  Virgin.  To  the  left  and  right  are  groups 
of  the  Saints.  At  the  base  of  the  picture  we  see  the  Resurrection  and  the  Ferry 
of  Charon,  the  Angels  blowing  the  trumpets  of  doom  and  a  group  of  lost  souls 
bewailing  their  fate. 


^o 


Place  of  the  "Last  Judgment"  in  Itahan  Art.  — The  "Last 
Judgment"  is  tlie  last  great  monumental  work  in  fresco  of  16th 
century  Italian  art,,  and  closes  the  period  which  opened  with  the 
"Last  Supper."  The  Venetian  colorists  alone  offer  a  striking  excep- 
tion to  the  general  law  as  to  the  dates  of  works  of  art  of  the  great 
period.  Venice  alone  continued  to  develop  a  great  school  of  art 
after  1530,  and  it  was  the  only  important  Italian  State  which  pre- 
served its  independence  after  this  date.  Venetian  painters,  how- 
ever, confined  themselves  to  canvas  painting  in  oil.  In  the  case  of 
architectural  decorations,  canvases  were  painted  and  subsequently 
fastened   directly  to    the   walls   which  were   to   be   decorated.      The 


SIXTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING.  283 

Venetians  did  not  affect,  or  succeed  in,  the  great  monumental  style 
of  the  Florentines.  Harmonious  and  beautiful  coloring  was  their 
special  gift,  and  in  this  they  were  and  have  been  unrivaled. 

Before  naming  the  artists  of  the  Venetian  School,  it  will  be 
advisable  to  mention  artists  of  other  portions  of  Italy,  who  did  not 
outlive  the  limit  fixed  by  the  "Last  Judgment,"  and  by  the  national 
misfortunes  which  immediately  preceded  its  creation. 

The  Later  Years  of  Michael  Angelo  were  especially  devoted 
to  the  construction  of  St.  Peter's  Church  (p.  118),  and  to  the  com- 
pletion of  the  statue  of  "Moses"  (p.   181  and  No.  154). 

CORREGGIO    (1494-1534\ 

The  Most  Important  Contemporaries  of  the  three  great  Floren- 
tine artists  already  mentioned  *  are,  by  common  consent,  Correggio 
(cor  red' jo)  of  Parma,  and  the  Venetian  Titian  (tlsh'an).  Titian,  as 
a  member  of  the  Venetian  School,  will  be  subsequently  mentioned. 
Correggio  died  in  1534,  and  the  limit  of  his  life  corresponds  in  time 
to  the  general  rule  outside  of  Venice. 

The  Baptismal  Name  of  this  artist  was  Antonio  Allegri  (al  la'gre). 
Correggio,  a  sixiall  town  in  the  civic  Principality  of  Parma,  was  his 
birthplace. 

Frescoes  in  Parma. — There  are  frescoes  by  Correggio  in  Parma, 
which  have  furnished  subjects  for  attractive  engravings  (by  Toschi), 
but  his  style  of  design  and  methods  in  color  were  more  especially 
adapted  to  oil-paintings,  and  these  are  his  most  important  works. 

Oil-paintings. — Being  portable,  these  paintings  have  been  dis- 
persed through  all  the  Galleries  of  Europe.  Thus  Correggio  may  be 
known  without  visiting  Italy.  This  holds  as  well  of  the  Venetian 
art,  which  also  affected  the  portable  canvases.  For  obvious  reasons 
the  same  rule  does  not  hold  of  the  Florentines,  whose  greatest  works 
can  only  be  seen  in  the  buildings  for  which  they  were  designed. 

Correggio's  Method  in  oil-painting  was  based  on  a  use  of  lights 
and  shadows  ("  chiar-oscuro ")  (chi  ar'-os  cu'  ro),  of  which  Leonardo 
da  Vinci  was  the  originator,  and  which  spread  through  North  Italy 
from  his  scholars  and  his  Academy  in  Milan.  Correggio  developed 
this  method  as  a  means  to  the  representation  of  sudden  expressions 
and  rapid   movements   of  face   and   gesture.    In  his  conceptioup   of 

♦  Raphael  was  a  Florentine  as  regards  his  School. 


2S-i  SIXTEENTH     CENTURY     IiaHAN     PAINTING. 

religious  subjects,  he  is  not  as  serious  or  as  thoughtful  as  the  Flor« 
entines.  In  realistic  representation  of  details,  he  went  much  farther 
than  the  Florentine  art.  His  composition  and  arrangement  of  fig- 
ures are  not  as  symmetrical.  His  pictures  are  not  distinguished  by 
the  varied  yet  balanced  arrangement  of  Raphael,  and  the  types  of 
his  figures  and  faces  have  not  the  same  elevation  and  nobilit}'.  On 
the  other  hand,  Correggio's  paintings  have  a  beauty  and  grace 
peculiarly  their  own,  and  in  mythologic  subjects  especially,  he  is 
only  rivaled  by  Titian.  His  pictui'es  appeal  readily  to  the  modern 
eye,  and  there  is  no  artist  of  the  IGth  century  who  will  more  easily 
find  and  hold  modern  admiration  (2  08,  209), 

Important  Works. — Among  many  notable  paintings  by  Correggio 
may  be  mentioned  "The  Holy  Night,"  and  '^The  Penitent  Magda- 
len,"* in  Dresden;  the  ''Madonna  della  Scodella,"t  in  Florence;  the 
"  Mystical  Marriage  of  Saint  Catharine,"  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris ; 
the  "  Education  of  Cupid,"  in  the  National  Gallery  of  London ; 
"Leda  and  the  Swan,"  in  the  Museum  of  Berlin,  and  the  "Danae" 
(dana'e),  in  Rome. 

OTHER    16TH    CENTURY    ITALIAN"    ARTISTS,    NOT    VENETIANS. 

The  Catalogue  of  Names  and  works  belonging  to  the  first  quarter 
of  the  IGth  century  might  be  extended  indefinitely.  There  is 
scarcely  an  Italian  artist  of  the  period  who  did  not  occasionally  rival 
the  greatest  masters  in  certain  individual  works.  There  are  many 
artists  who  are  only  placed  in  the  second  rank  because  of  the  su- 
preme genius  of  their  great  rivals.  Of  these,  Sodoma  (so  do'  ma; 
(1480-1 519),  a  resident  of  Siena;  Andrea  del  Sarto  (sar' to),  of 
Florence  (1487-1531),  and  Sebastian  del  Piombo  (pe  oin' Ido)  are 
especially  noteworthy  (aside  from  the  A^enetians). 

Sodoma's  works  are  rare,  but  he  is  distinguished  by  a  most 
peculiar  beauty  of  outlines  and  of  color.  Del  Sarto's  best  work  is 
the  series  of  frescoes  in  the  court  of  the  Church  of  the  Annunziata 
in  Florence.  No.  210  shows  one  of  his  "Holy  Families."  Sebastian 
del  Piombo  is  especially  famed  for  the  "  Resurrection  of  Lazarus," 
in  the  National  Gallery  of  London. 

*  Eiigi-avings  are  frequently  seen  ia  pail's,  one  of  which  is  from  the  Magdalen  by  Corresgio. 
The  other  is  from  a  picture,  also  in  the  Dresden  Gallery,  a  much  larger  and  a  much  more  coarsely 
painted  picture  of  the  18th  century,  by  an  artist  named  Battoni  (bat  to'  ny),  of  no  great  distinction. 

t  Thus  named  from  the  plate  held  by  the  Virgin— the  subject  is  the  repose  of  the  Holy 
Family  during  the  Flight  into  Egypt. 


5   )   -i     i 


2o8.     CORREGGIO.     "THE    HOLY    NIGHT,"   DRESDEN. 


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2X0.    ANDREA   DEL  SARTO.      HOLY   FAMILY,    MUNICH- 


211.  Giovanni  Beilini.     The  Dead  Christ,   Milan. 

212.  Carpaccio.     Presentation  of  the  Infant  Christ  to  Simeon,  Venlcfr. 


SIXTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING. 


289 


THE    16TH    CENTURY    VEHSTETIAN    SCHOOL. 

The  Beginnings  of  the  Venetian  School  were  connected  with  the 
School  of  Padua  (p.  253),  but  diverged  from  it  rapidly.  As  distinct 
from  works  whose  mention  belongs  to  the  local  history  of  NTenice, 
the  first  important  A^enetian  names  are  those  of  the  brothers  Bellmi 
(bel  lee' ne)— Giovanni  (jova'ne)and  Gentile  (jentee'le).  These  art- 
ists flourished  in  the  later  15th  and  eariy  16th  centuries. 

Giovanni  Bellini  (1426-1516)  is  the  more  important  of  the  two. 
Among  the  works  of  this  one  artist  may  be  found  some  which  have 
the  harsher  qualities  and  stiffness  of  the  older  style  (211),  and 
others  which  are  abreast  with  the  perfected  style  of  the  16th  cent- 
ury (213).  His  works  are  especially  to  be  studied  in  Venice.  An- 
other artist  of  special  note,  belonging  both  to  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries,  was  Vittore  Carpaccio  (vit  to' ra  car  patch' yo)  (212). 

Venetian  Color.— The  Venetians  had  long  been  familiar  with  the 
gorgeous  colors  of  Oriental  decorative  art,  and  their  main  occupation 
was  the  trade  in  Oriental  fabrics  and  luxuries.  Hence,  doubtless, 
the  development  of  that  taste  in  color  for  which  they  have  a  supreme 
distinction!  The  cUmate  and  atmosphere  of  Venice  also  led  its 
artists  to  observe  objects  rather  in  masses  of  color  than  in  distinct 
outlines.  Hence  the  preference  for  oil-painting  in  opposition  to  the 
more  rigid  outlines  of  fresco. 

Giorgione  (jorjo'na)  (I477-I5ii).-The  first  artist,  in  point  of 
time  who  reached  the  whole  perfection  of  all  the  later  Venetian  art 
was  Giorgione.  His  works  are  extremely  rare.  An  important  pict- 
ure is  represented  by  the  illustration  214. 

Titian  (1477-1576),  the  great  head  of  the  Venetian  School,  was 
the  scholar  of  Giorgione.  His  greatest  picture  is  probably  the  "  As- 
sumption of  the  Virgin,"  in  Venice.  His  leading  picture  in  Dresden 
is  the  "  Christ  and  the  Tribute  Money."  In  Beriin,  the  "  Daughter 
of  Titian";  in  Florence,  the  "Bella";  in  Rome,  the  "Venus  Blind- 
ing Cupid,"  of  the  Borghese  Gallery,  are  noted  works.  Individual 
mention  is,  however,  at  the  expense  of  the  pictures  excluded  from 
the  list.  Characteristic  works  are  shown  by  the  illustrations  215-217. 
Palma  Vecchio  (vek'  yo)  and  Paris  Bordone  (bor  do'  na)  were 
contemporaries  and,  occasionally,  equals  of  Titian  in  quality,  though 
not    in    productiveness.      Palma's   most   quoted    picture    is  the   "St. 


290  SIXTEENTH     CENTURY    ITALIAN     PAINTING. 

Barbara,"  in  \^enice  (218).  Another  illustration  (219)  is  a  fine  ex- 
ample of  the  noble  qualities  of  the  Venetian  School. 

Tintoretto*  (1512-1594)  is  an  artist  especially  exalted  by  Ruskin, 
and  with  justice.  The  dates  show  that,  as  regards  time,  he  is  some- 
what later  than  the  artists  so  far  mentioned.  Tintoretto  is  distin- 
guished among  Venetian  painters  for  his  intellectual  qualities.  His 
execution  w^as  occasionally  hasty,  and  occasionally  lacking  in  the 
finish  of  his  great  contemporaries.  Important  works  by  Tintoretto 
are  among  the  decorations  of  the  Doge's  Palace  in  Venice  (220), 
where  all  the  painters  named  are  also  represented. 

Paul  Veronese  f  (1528-1588)  was  the  last,  in  point  of  time,  of 
the  great  Venetians.  His  favorite  pictures  were  immense  canvases, 
in  which,  under  the  guise  of  Scripture  subjects,  the  Venetian  life  of 
his  own  time  was  portrayed.  Such  are  the  ''Marriage  of  Cana,"  in 
the  Louvre,  and  the  "Feast  of  the  Levite,"  in  the  Academy  at 
Venice.  Among  other  important  works  in  this  latter  gallery  is  the 
one  shown  by  illustration  221. 

During  the  17th  Century,  the  School  of  Venice  did  not  flourish. 
The  decay  of  the  State  and  of  art  went  hand  in  hand.  Meantime  a 
revival  took  place  elsewhere,  especially  in  Bologna  and  in  Naples. 
Venice  produced,  in  the  18th  century,  some  exceptions  to  the  general 
dearth  of  illustrious  artists  at  that  time  (p.  223).  In  religious  art, 
two  painters  of  the  same  family  and  name,  Tiej^olo  (tee  ay'  po  lo), 
produced  fine  works,  which  do  not,  however,  rival  those  of  earlier 
date.  Canaletto  and  Guardi  (g^va^'de)  were  successful  portrayers 
of  views  of  the  citv  of  Venice. 


NOTES    ON"    THE    ILLITSTRATION'S    FOR    ITALIAN"    PAINTING    OP    THE    16TH 

CENTURY. 

(192-221,  inclusive,  pp.  257-297.) 

The  "Last  Supper,"  l)y  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  lias  been  included  in  these  illustra- 
tions for  reasons  mentioned  in  text,  although  its  date  of  completion  preceded  by 
two  years  the  opening  of  the  16th  century.  In  the  arrangement  of  matter  and  of 
illustration,  the  precedence  given  Leonardo  indicates  his  relation  to  the  period  in 
general,  as  regards  precedence  in  time  and  general  influence.  Otherwise  the  order 
of  arrangement  has  no  reference  to  order  of  time  (the  painters  being  contempo- 
raries), with  exception  that  the  Venetian  school  is  placed  last  because  it  continued  in 
a  flourishing  condition  after  the  decline  had  begun  elsewhere.     Tintoretto  and  Paul 

*  The  'baptismal  name  of  this  artist  was  Jacopo  Robusti  (ro  biKis'te). 
+  The  baptismal  name  of  this  artist  was  Paolo  Caliari  (calyahrS). 


213.  Giovanni  Bellini.     Madonna  and  Saints,  Venice. 

214,  Giorgione.     Head  of  the  Madonna,  at  Castelfranco,  near  Venice. 


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217.     Titian.     Venus  and  Bacchante,  Muniib..' 


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218.     PALMA   VECCHIO.     SAINT    BARBARA,   VENICE. 


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320.     Tintoretto.     Mercury  and  the  Graces,   Ducal  Palace,   Venice 


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SEVENTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING.  2 1)  7 

Veronese  are  also  placed  last  among  the  Venetians,  because  they  especially  repre- 
sent the  best  work  of  the  Venetian  School  in  the  later  part  of  the  16th  century. 

Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo  are  associated  in  arrangement  with  one  another, 
because  they  were  the  two  artists  by  whom  the  great  moniimental  works  in  liome 
were  executed,  and  they  are  associated  in  arrangement  with  Leonardo,  because  all 
were  of  the  Florentine  School. 

A  fair  idea  of  the  general  distinctions  between  the  style  of  Italian  painting  in 
the  16th  century  and  that  of  the  15th  century  may  be  obtained  by  comparing  iu 
bulk  the  entire  illustration  192-221  (pp.  257-297),  with  the  Nos.  185-191  (pp.  246- 
257).  A  fair  comparison  of  the  two  centuries  can  not,  however,  be  made  without 
including  the  pictorial  relief  compositions  of  the  Ghiberti  Gates  in  the  contrast 
(p.  200). 

A  summary  review  of  the  typical  illustrations  for  the  16th  century  may  serve 
to  show  that  its  distinction  is  by  no  means  founded  on  purely  mechanical  and 
technical  perfection,  in  which,  however,  its  productions  have  been  rarely  rivaled 
and  never  excelled — but  more  especially  on  a  thoroughly  honest,  worthy,  and  dig- 
nified treatment  of  the  most  exalted  subjects  which  have  ever  been  represented 
by  pictorial  art. 

For  the  contemporary  art  of  Northern  Europe,  see  Nos.  245-249  (pp.  321-327). 

ITALIAN    PAmilNG    OF   THE    17TH    CENTURY    RENAISSANCE. 

SCHOOL    OF    BOLOGNA. 

A  General  Decline  of  the  Italian  art,  aside  from  the  School  of 
Venice,  had  begun  directly  after  the  death  of  Raphael  in  1520, 
with  the  opening  of  the  wars,  in  1521,  which  were  fought  on  Ital- 
ian soil  between  Charles  V.  of  Spain  and  Germany,  and  Francis  I. 
of  France.  The  fourteen  years  which  intervened  between  152  0  and 
1534  (the  time  of  Michael  Angelo's  "Last  Judgment")  witnessed 
the  death  of  nearly  all  contemporary  artists  who  were  not  them- 
selves affected  by  the  decline  of  style  which  began  for  the  new 
generation.  A  most  important  episode  and  cause  of  this  decline 
was  the  sack  of  Rome,  in  152  7,  by  the  troops  of  Charles  V.  The 
Papal  city  has  never  recovered  the  loss  of  material  splendor  which 
it  suffered  at  this  time,  and  the  artists  congregated  there  who  were 
dispersed  and  ruined  b}'  this  disaster,  never  found  a  parallel  center 
of  encouragement  and  support.  The  fate  of  individuals,  as  influ- 
enced by  this  event,  may  easih^  be  followed  in  the  "Lives"  bv 
Yasari  (p.  2  38). 

The  Sieg-e  and  Capture  of  Florence  (1529-1530)  by  the  same 
army  (p.  282),  consummated  the  misfortunes  which  had  been 
caused  by  the  sack  of  Rome.  The  relations  of  Italy  with  the  rest 
of   Europe  were   much   promoted   by  these  wars   and   foreign   con- 


298  SEVENTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING. 

quests,  especially  as  the  Italian  States  were  by  no  means  united 
against  their  foreign  foes,  and  because  each  one  of  the  rival  foreign 
antagonists  had  allies  and  supporters  among  them.  The  decline  of 
Italian  culture  is  thus  contemporaneous  with  its  spread  over  North- 
ern Europe  (p.  125).  Although  the  cupidity  of  the  Northern  Pow- 
ers had  first  been  roused  by  the  more  material  aspects  of  Italian 
wealth  and  civilization,  they  could  not  resist  the  insensible  influ- 
ences of  the  Renaissance  culture,  which  rapidly  mastered  the  whole 
of  Europe.  We  have  seen  that  the  history  of  modern  architecture 
offers  a  curious  illustration  of  this  influence. 

Nearly  Three  Quarters  of  a  Century  had  succeeded  the  great 
period  of  Italian  painting,  Avhich  were  an  almost  absolute  blank  as 
regards  the  i)rod action  of  meritorious  works,  aside  from  the  School 
of  Venice.  Some  of  the  portraits  of  this  time,  especially  those  of 
the  Florentine  Bronzino  (bron  zee'  no),  ]nake  an  exception  to  this 
rule.  The  most  characteristic  name  for  this  later  16th  century 
period,  is  that  of  Baroccio  (ba  rot'  cho).  His  pictures  are  extrava- 
gant as  regards  pose  and  expression,  and  weak  as  religious  concep- 
tions— they  are  characteristic  of  the  general  style  of  a  large  number 
of  pictures  belonging  to  this  period  which  are  scattered  through 
Italian  churches,  and  which  have  never  received  attention,  even 
from  the  worst  subsequent  taste. 

The  Caracci. — Toward  the  beginning  of  the  17th  centurj',  a 
revival  of  taste  and  of  art  made  itself  felt  in  Italy,  which  found  its 
centers  of  activity  especially  in  Naples  and  in  Bologna.  The  School 
of  the  latter  town  deserves,  as  a  whole,  the  pre-eminent  mention. 
Three  artists  of  one  family,  an  uncle,  Agostino  (a  go  ste'  no),  and 
two  nephews,  Ludovico  (lc5o  do  ve'  ko)  and  Annibale  (an  ne  ba'  la),  of 
the  same  family  name,  Caracci  (ca  rat'che),  were  its  leaders. 

Their  Scholars. — They  were  themselves  more  especially  Academic 
instructors,  and  their  own  paintings  are  not  numerous.  Their 
scholars  were  more  prolific  and,  as  painters,  are  more  generally  cel- 
ebrated. Three  of  them  are  especially  prominent  in  the  history  of 
art,  Guido  Reni  (g\A^ee'  do  ray'  ne),  Domenichino  (do  men  e  ke'  no), 
and  Guercino  (g^A^e^  che'no). 

The  School  of  Bologna. — The  School  is  indifferently  known  as 
the  School  of  Bologna,  or  School  of  the  Caracci.  It  is  also  called 
sometimes  the  School  of  the  Eclectics,  or  Imitators.  These  latter 
names   indicate  the   self-confessed   dependence  of  its  artists  on  the 


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227.     DOMENICHINO.     LAST   COMMUNION    OF    ST.    JEROME,   VATICAN. 


SEVENTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING.  30b 

models  of  the  early  16  th  century,  and  their  effort  to  be  universal 
or  eclectic  in  this  dependence  or  imitation,  and  to  combine  the 
virtues  of  the  various  great  artists  of  the  former  period. 

Guide  Reni  (1575-1642). — Of  the  three  scholars  of  the  Caracci 
just  named,  Guido  Reni  was  much  the  most  prolific,  and  in  some 
ways  the  most  gifted. 

His  Famous  "Aurora  "  is  a  fresco  on  the  ceiling  of  an  apartment 
in  the  Rospigliosi  (ro  spel  yo'  se)  Villa,  at  Rome,  of  very  effective 
coloring,  especially  resplendent  in  the  yellow  hue  (indicating  the 
dawn)  which  forms  the  background  on  the  left,  and  spreads  over 
the  painting  from  that  point  in  gradually  lessening  intensity.  The 
composition  is  an  effective  decoration,  although  the  details  of  the 
execution  will  scarcely  compare  to  advantage  with  the  great  works 
of  the  10th  century.  This  remark  applies  to  the  original.  As  far 
as  engravings  are  concerned,  the  distinctions  are  not  apparent. 
Guido  is  otherwise  well  known  for  a  large  number  of  pictures, 
several  of  which  are  used  as  illustrations  in  the  subsequent  notes 
on  the  17th  century  types  (Nos.  22  2-2  2  6),  His  most  universally 
illustrated  picture,  aside  from  the  "  Aurora,"  is  the  fine  portrait  of 
Beatrice  Cenci  (chen'  che),  in  the  Barberini  {bar  ba  re'  ne)  Palace, 
at  Rome. 

Domenichino  (1581-1641)  was  a  more  conscientious  artist  than 
Guido  in  his  nature  and  in  his  pictures.  As  usual  in  this  period,  his 
more  attractive  works  are  rather  from  the  field  of  mythology  than 
of  religion. 

His  Noted  Works, — A  fine  example  of  this  class  of  painting  is 
his  "  Diana  and  ISTymphs,"  of  the  Borghese  (bor  ga'  sa)  Gallery,  in 
Rome,  one  of  the  best  works  of  the  century.  His  pictures  of  a 
"Sibyl"  are  known  in  several  exam.ples.  His  "St,  Cecilia,"  in  the 
Louvre,  is  also  a  quoted  work.  The  "  Last  Communion  of  St. 
Jerome/'  in  the  Vatican  Gallery  of  oil-paintings,  is  noted  for  its 
CJonscientious  and  able  execution  (22  7), 

Its  choice  of  subject  illustrates  a  general  tendency  of  the  time 
to  views  of  imaginary  episodes  in  the  lives  of  the  Saints,  whereas 
the  earlier  tendency  was,  by  preference,  rather  to  Biblical  history, 
at  least  in  the  greatest  masterpieces.  The  subject  and  moment 
chosen  in  this  picture  also  illustrate  a  general  tendency  to  realistic 
and  tragic  effects.  These  contrast  again  with  the  more  sedate  and 
serene    aspects    of    earlier    paintings.      Compare,    for    instance,    the 


304  SEVENTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTIXu^. 

motives  and  subjects  of  Ghiberti's  doors.  The  pictorial  charactei 
of  the  work  justifies  this  reference.  It  may  be  noted  here  that 
paintings  of  martyrdoms,  in  their  more  revolting  aspects,  were  not 
congenial  to  the  earlier  classic  period  of  Italian  art.  The  illustration 
chosen  for  Ribera  (23  0)  has  this  bearing  for  the  new  period.* 

Guercino  (1590  1666)  f  was  the  least  important  of  the  three 
painters  named,  but  is  also  distinguished  for  exceedingly  fine  paint- 
ings. His  "Abraham  and  Hagar,"  in  the  Milan  Gallery,  is  a  weU- 
known  example.  As  is  the  case  with  Domenichino,  his  most  a1> 
tractive  subjects  are  mythological  (228-2  30). 

The  Name  of  Carlo  Dolce  (doi'cha)  (1616-1686)  is  not  attached 
to  any  particular  school,  but  it  is  one  of  the  best  known  and  n^ost 
characteristic  of  the  time.    He  was  a  native  of  Florence. 

Noted  Works. — Ilis  well-known  "  St.  Cecilia,"  in  the  Dresden 
Gallery  (repetitions  elsewhere),  may  be  contrasted  with  the  picture 
by  Raphael  (p.  2  77,  and  No.  204)  as  significant  for  the  general 
distinction  between  the  16th  and  17th  century  art.  The  latter 
rarely  reaches  the  nobility  of  conception  which  is  found  in  the 
16th  century,  but  it  can  not  be  denied  that  its  pictures  are  beau- 
tiful and  attractive.  A  Madonna  by  Carlo  Dolce  is  illustrated  a\i 
2  32.  The  "Annunciation,"  or  "Angel  Gabriel,"  in  Florence,  by  the 
same  artist,  is  also  a  typical  example  (2  33).  The  "Annunciation" 
is  treated  in  earlier  art  as  an  historical  event.  Here  the  subject 
is  indicated  by  a  picture  which  is  more  satisfactory  as  a  painting 
than  as  a  definite  reminder  of  the  Biblical  account. 


THE    SCHOOL    OF   NAPLES. 

The  School  of  Naples  is  headed  by  artists  who  are  more  distin- 
guished for  their  great  mastery  and  power  of  technique  than  by 
elevated  art. 

Caravaggio  (ka  ra  vad'Jo)  (1569-1609)  was  one  of  its  leaders.  His 
pictures  are  fine  works  of  brush  painting,  but  frequently  ignoble  in 
choice  of  subject  or  in  conception. 

His  Works. — Pictures  of  Martyrdoms  are  much  affected  by  him, 
and   they    are    characteristic   for   his   time,    as    previously    observed. 

*  The  real  name  of  this  artist  was  Domenico  Zampieri  (do  i.ieu'f  kO  dzam  pS  5' re).  The 
nif'    .ame  used  is  that  by  which  he  is  generally  quoted. 

t  The  real  name  f)f  this  artist  was  Fraricesco  Barbicri  (frftu  digs'  ko  bar  bee  a'  r6).  G-uerfine 
was  the  name  of  his  birthplace. 


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SEVENTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING.  307 

Martyrdoms  are  rarely  represented  in  the  earlier  Italian  art,  because 
its  good  taste  disliked  the  repulsive  details  which  attend  such  sub- 
jects. Caravaggio's  "Entombment"  (2  3  7),  in  the  Vatican  Gallery, 
is  an  illustration  of  his  fine  technical  ability,  and  also  of  the  vul- 
garity of  the  types  which  are  common  in  his  pictures.  His  "Gam- 
blers," in  the  Sciarra  (sha'  ra)  Palace  at  Rome  (repetitions  else- 
where), illustrates  the  rise  of  a  new  class  of  subjects,  distinct  from 
the  ideal  tendencies  of  both  Italian  Mythologic  and  Scriptural  art. 

Ribera  (re  ba'  ra),  also  called  Spagnoletto  (spa  nyo  let'  o)  (1588- 
1656),  was  a  scholar  of  the  foregoing.  One  of  his  finest  paintings  is 
the  "  St.  Mary  of  Egypt,"  in  the  Dresden  Gallery.  See  also  illustra- 
tions (235,  236).  Ribera  was  a  Spaniard,  and  may  with  equal  justice 
be  classified  with  the  Spanish  School. 

Salvator  Rosa  (1615-1673)  is  one  of  the  greatest  artists  of  his 
time  in  landscapes  and  battle  scenes.  These  are  scattered  through 
various  European  galleries.  Two  of  his  best  landscapes  are  in  the 
Pitti  Palace  at  Florence.  The  sketch  illustrated  (238)  is  also  in 
Florence. 

CHARACTERISTICS    OF   17TH    CENTURY    RELIQIOUS    ART. 

Typical  Subjects. — More  important  than  a  catalogue  of  names 
is  some  knowledge  of  the  general  conditions  by  which  the  17th 
century  art  differed  from  the  preceding  periods,  and  of  the  peculiar 
types  which  it  iDroduced.  To  the  hints  on  this  matter  already 
offered  some  additional  points  may  now  be  added. 

Changed  Political  Conditions. — The  Italian  Civic  States,  whose 
rivalry  and  active  political  life  had  stimulated  the  earlier  Italian 
art,  had  been  su^Dplanted  by  petty  despotic  governments  of  foreign 
blood  or  connection,  ruling  in  the  interest  of  the  trading  class. 
Art  was  therefore  dependent  on  the  patronage  of  rich  and  in- 
fluential individuals,  rather  than  on  commissions  of  general  public 
interest,  as  in  earlier  times.  Architectural  decorations  were  occa- 
sionally undertaken,  but  with  one  exception — the  well-known  "Au- 
rora," by  Guido  Reni — few  works  of  this  kind  achieved  distinction. 

Frescoes  Replaced  by  Panels. — The  period  is  mainly  one  of  port- 
able panel  pictures  on  wood  or  canvas,  as  far  as  characteristic  and 
important  works  are  concerned.  This  x>ortability  explains  the  fact 
that  the  picture  galleries  of  Northern  Europe  are  so  largely  filled  with 


308  SEVENTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING. 

17th  century  pictures.  The  history  of  Italian  art  should  preferably 
be  studied  first  in  Italy,  as  this  preponderance  of  the  later  works  in 
Northern  Europe  is  apt  otherwise  to  give  erroneous  views. 

Preference  for  Heads,  Busts,  and  Half-figure  Compositions. — This 
appears  to  result  from  a  wish  to  xjreserve  a  large  scale  of  propor- 
tions, notwithstanding  an  average  diminution  in  the  size  of  the 
paintings.  In  the  l<Jth  century,  half-figure  compositions  are  con- 
fined to  the  Venetian  painters. 

The  Madonna  Type  tends  to  heads  or  busts  of  somewhat  senti- 
mental character.  The  eyes  are  frequently  turned  upward,  some- 
what in  the  manner  of  theatrical  photographs.  Raphael's  Madonnas 
have  at  once  a  more  dignified  and  more  unconscious  expression, 
and  this  is  the  general  rule  for  his  time  and  for  earlier  Madonnas. 
Heads  or  busts  of  the  Madonna  (see  2  31),  as  distinct  from  the 
"  Holy  Family,"  or  from  the  "  Virgin  and  Child,"  are  not  known 
before  the  1 7th  centurj'.  The  preference  for  the  new  type  indicates 
a  general  tendency  toward  the  realistic  in  details,  and  the  senti- 
mental or  ecstatic  in  expression,  which  is  almost  universal  in  the 
religious  pictures  of  the  period. 

Comparison  of  Madonnas. — Subjects  of  the  "  Holy  Family,"  or  of 
the  "  Virgin  and  Infant  Saviour,"  are  also  treated  in  the  realistic  and 
sentimental  spirit  (232).  The  Madonnas  of  this  period  tend  to  por- 
trait-like representations  of  actual  models,  rather  than  to  idealized 
conceptions  of  maternity,  or  of  the  Mother  of  God.  If  the  Madonnas 
of  Carlo  Dolce  are  compared  with  Raphael's  (195,  196),  it  appears 
that  the  expression  of  the  former  is  more  on  the  surface — the 
motherly  tenderness  is  exhibited  by  the  outward  action.  With 
Raphael  it  lies  in  the  nobility  of  nature  and  character,  which  is 
made  apparent  by  dignity  of  pose  and  expression.  Held  in  reserve, 
the  effect  is  more  permanent. 

The  "  Ecce  Homos." — In  the  representations  of  the  Saviour,  the 
now  familiar  "  Ecce  Homo  "  tj^e,  that  is,  of  the  head  of  the  Saviour 
crowned  with  thorns,  is  a  characteristic  one  for  the  17th  century 
(223).  The  subject  is  rarely  seen  before  this  time,  and  in  such  rare 
cases,  is  mainly  depicted  as  the  "  Handkef chief  of  St.  Veronica,"  on 
which  the  print  of  the  Saviour's  face  appears.  The  earlier  periods 
of  Christian  art  conceived  the  Saviour  preferably  in  His  entire  phys- 
ical form  and  in  relation  to  the  historic  events  of  His  career.  The 
sentimental  tendency  of  the  later  period  is  again  apparent  her'^^ 


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234-     Carlo  Dolce.     Magdalen,  Florence. 

2^S-     Ribera.     St.  Bartholomew,  Madrid  1  -     -  -,    •       i 

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.SEVENTEENTH     CENTURY     ITALIAN     PAINTING.  313 

» 

"Assumptions"   of  the  Madonna  and  "Immaculate  Conception" 

are  also  characteristic.  Aside  from  Titian's  famous  "Assumption," 
they  were  rarely  attempted  in  earlier  art.  The  ecstatic  character 
of  these  subjects  explains  their  frequency  at  this  time  (2  65), 

The  Subject  of  the  "  Penitent  Magdalen "  is  again  character- 
istic for  the  new  period,  and  for  its  sentimental  tendencies  (2  2  6). 
The  single  pictures  by  Correggio  and  by  Titian  treating  this  subject, 
are  rare  exceptions  to  its  earlier  absence. 

Half-figures  of  Saints,  or  Apostles,  are  also  typical  subjects 
(2  35).  Here  again  the  point  applies,  that  in  earlier  art  the  separa- 
tion of  a  character  from  the  Scriptural  historical  incidents  through 
which  it  is  known,  was  uncommon  except  in  altar-pieces.  In  altar- 
pieces  of  earlier  art  full  figures  were  the  rule. 

Half-figure  Pictures  of  Scriptural  Events  and  stories,  are  com- 
mon in  the  1 7th  century,  and  were  not  previously  affected,  except 
by  the  Venetians,  as  above  noted. 

The  Sibyl  Type.— It  has  been  observed  (p.  2  81)  that  the  Sibyl 
subject  in  earlier  Italian  art  was  one  adopted  from  the  ancient  . 
mythology  as  a  personification  of  inspiration  and  of  prophecy.  The 
"Sibyl"  of  the  17th  century  is  rather  the  portrait  of  an  interesting 
model  beautifully  painted,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  picture  by  Guido 
Reni  (22  5),  than  an  attempt  to  realize  this  earlier  ideal.  The  Sibyls 
of  Michael  Angelo,  on  the  ceiling  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  or  by 
Raphael,  in  Santa  Maria  della  Pace  (p.  2  77),  are  interesting 
contrasts. 

Mythological  Subjects. — In  other  mythological  subjects  (220, 
222,  22  8,  2  30),  the  Italians  had  never  been  intent  on  classical  or 
critical  accuracy.  These  subjects  were  suggested  by  Italian  interest 
in  ancient  literature,  but  were,  notwithstanding,  treated  without 
reference  to  archaeological  considerations,  and  were  rather  excuses 
for  beautiful  paintings  or  decorative  compositions  than  efforts  to  be 
consistent  with  Antique  representations  of  similar  subjects. 

Italian  Influence  on  Europe. — II  was  in  the  17th  century  that 
Italian  painting  (both  of  this  and  of  the  earlier  time)  began  to  exer- 
cise a  decisive  influence  on  other  European  Schools.  Thus  painters 
like  Murillo,  Van  Dyck,  and  Rubens  exhibit  many  parallels,  in 
choice  and  treatment  of  subject,  to  the  points  above  indicated.  For 
artists  of  distinction  outside  of  Italy,  study  in  this  country  had  now 
become  a  matter  of  course. 


bl4 


SEVEN'TEEXTH     CEXTURY     ITALIAN     PAIXTIXG. 


NOTES   ON   THE   ELLITSTIIATIONS   FOR   ITALIAN  PAINTINa   OF   THE   17TH 

CENTURY. 

(222-238,  inclusive,  pp.  297-313.) 

To  obtain  a  fair  general  idea  of  the  art  of  the  17th  century  as  a  whole,  the 
above  numbers  should  be  immediately  associated  with  Xos.  250-268,  inclusive,  ob- 
serving that  the  intervening  illustrations  necessarily  make  a  break  in  the  order  of 
time.  As  regai'ds  Xos.  222-238,  it  must  be  observed  that  thej-  have  been  chosen 
especially  to  represent  certain  broad  contrasts  with  16th  century  Italian  art,  and 
that  they  can  not  be  considered  fairly  representative,  as  regards  number  and 
variety  of  choice.  They  have  been  more  especially  designed  to  represent  the  sen- 
timental and  realistic  traits  considered  in  the  text.  Comparison  with  Xos.  192-221 
(pp.  257-297)  will  probably  make  clear  the  difference  of  taste  in  the  16th  centurj". 
As  regards  conceptions  of  the  Saviour,  compare  219  (p.  295)  with  223  (p.  300). 
For  the  Madonna  type,  compare  195,  196,  with  231,  232.  For  the  general  attitude 
in  religious  art,  compare  200-202  with  227,  236. 


Carlo  Dolce.     St.  Cecilia,  Dresden. 


HISTORIC  PAINTING  IN  NORTHERN  EUROPE. 

NETHERLANDS   AND    GERMANY. 

Schools  in  Question. — The  influence  of  Gothic  architecture  on 
painting  in  Northern  Europe  has  been  noticed  (p.  237).  Although 
the  local  studies  of  specialists  reveal  the  existence  of  painters  in  all 
parts  of  Europe  during  the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  those  of  Ger- 
many and  the  Netherlands  are  the  only  ones  whose  Schools,  for  these 
two  centuries,  are  now  generally  known  by  large  collections  in 
modern  galleries.  In  the  1 7th  century  the  Spanish  art,  whose  earlier 
work  is  mainly  of  local  interest  only,  is  the  only  notable  addition  to 
the  Schools  of  the  Netherlands,  that  of  Germany  having  meanwhile 
almost  disappeared.  England  first  makes  her  appearance  as  the 
home  of  native  painters  of  great  reputation  in  the  18th  century.* 
As  for  France,  there  are  some  few  notable  names  scattered  through 
these  various  periods,  but  her  distinction  begins  more  especially  at, 
and  after,  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution,  at  the  close  of  the 
18th  century. 

Distribution  of  Paintings. — In  the  double  order  of  time  and  im- 
portance, attention  must  therefore  be  first  paid  to  the  Netherlands 
and  to  Germany.  The  galleries  of  Munich,  Berlin,  and  Cologne  offer, 
in  the  order  named,  the  best  large  collections  extant  of  early  Ger- 
man and  Netherland  art.  Pictures  of  the  17th  century  Dutch  and 
Flemish  Schools  have  been  so  widely  distributed  through  the  various 
galleries  of  Europe,  that  all  of  them  offer  many  good  examples. 
Dresden  is  the  richest  in  works  of  these  Schools,  next  to  the 
collections  which  are  in  Belgium  and  Holland. 

Relation  of  Netherland  Art  to  German. — In.  the  most  compre- 
hensive historical  point  of  view,  all  Netherland  art  is  a  branch  of 
the  Germanic,  and  the  modern  Netherland  territories  of  Belgium 
and  Holland  were  actually  portions  of  the  Germanic  "  Empire  "  until 
1648. 

*  Lely  and  Kneller,  of  the  17th  century,  were  German  foreigners. 


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16  FIFTEENTH     CEXTUKY     FLEMISH     PAINTING. 


In  the  Early  German  Art  there  was  no  question,  as  in  Italy,  of 
large  fresco  decorations  and  inonumental  paintings.  Pictures  were 
confined  to  altar-pieces  and  small  panels  of  religious  subjects,  for 
Church  decoration.  The  rivalry  of  the  stained  glass  art  (p.  106) 
was  one  element  contributing  to  this  relative  backwardness,  but 
there  were  other  causes.  Ital}'  far  surpassed  Germany  in  the  15th 
century  in  wealth  and  culture,  in  the  physical  beauty  of  its  popu- 
lation, and  therefore  of  the  types  and  models  at  disposal  of  the 
painter — and  above  all  in  the  sense  for  beauty  of  form,  which  in 
Italy  at  this  time  closely  approached  that  of  the  ancient  Greeks. 

15th  Century. — The  Van  Eycks. — In  the  15th  century  the  Dukes 
of  the  French  Duchy  of  Burgundy  had,  by  purchase  and  conquest, 
extended  their  territorial  rule  over  nearly  all  the  Netherland  prov- 
inces. For  these  territories,  which  were  in  no  way  connected  with 
France,  they  owed  feudal  allegiance  to  the  German  Emperor,  but 
this  allegiance  was  nominal.  The  "Burgundian"  Dukes  were  really 
independent  princes  of  vast  wealth  and  possessions.  Corresponding 
to  this  importance  of  the  Burgundian  Dukedom  is  the  development 
in  painting  of  the  School  of  the  two  brothers  Van  Eyck  (ike),  cen- 
tering about  the  towns  of  Bruges  and  Ghent  (in  modern  Belgium).* 
Quantities  of  the  works  of  this  School  have  been  dispersed  and 
destroyed,  especially  during  the  religious  troubles  and  wars  of  the 
Reformation,  and  in  the  wars  of  the  Netherlands  with  Spain,  which 
inherited  these  territories  in  the  16  th  century,  but  enough  remains 
to  demonstrate  a  rare  science  and  perfection  in  the  paintings  of  the 
Van  Eycks  themselves.  Their  leading  work  is  an  altar-painting, 
^'The  Adoration  of  the  Lamb,"  of  which  the  center  piece  remains 
in  the  Church  of  St.  Bavo  at  Ghent  (finished  m  1432).  Smaller 
panels,  which  closed  on  hinges  over  the  central  picture,  were  deco- 
rated with  paintings  on  l)oth  sides,  so  that,  whether  the  panels  were 
<)l)en  or  shut,  pictures  were  visible.  These  smaller  panels  are  an 
important  possession  of  the  Museum  of  Berlin  (239,  2-10,  241). 
These  and  other  paintings  of  the  brothers  Van  Eyck  are  character- 
ized by  a  wonderfully  conscientious  execution  of  minute  details,  by 
great  warmth  of  color,  and  by  a  serious  and  noble  conception  of 
the  subjects  themselves.  The  precedence  of  these  artists  in  the 
successful  use  of  oil-colors  has  been  noted  at  p.  253. 

The  School  of  Cologne  was  contemporary  with  that  of  the  Van 

♦  Hubert  Van  Eyck.  1366-1426 ;  Jan  Van  Eyck,  1390-1440. 


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FIFTEENTH     CENTUKY     FLEMISH     PAINTING.  321 

Eycks  and  represents  the  wealth  and  importance  of  this  city  at 
the  time  Its  greatest  pictm^e  is  the  altar-piece  oi  the  Cologne 
Cathedral,  known  to  Germans  as  the  '' Kolner  Dom-bild"  (kei'ner 
dome-bildt),  i.e.,  the  "Cologne  Cathedral  picture"  (242). 

The  Kolner  Dom-bild.-The  subject  of  the  central  panel  is  the  "  Adoration  of 
the  Wise  Men."  Panels  which  close  over  this,  relate  to  the  patron  Samts  of  the 
citv  St  Ursula  and  St.  Qereon.  This  painting  (dating  about  1426)  has  a  truly 
wonderful  perfection  of  execution  and  purity  of  feeling  which  no  reproductions  can 
approach  It  is  the  work  of  a  Master  Stephan.  A  contemporary  Master  William 
was  also  distinguished.      Many  works  of  the  School  are  preserved  in  Cologne. 

Roger  Van  Der  Weiden  (i400-i464).-The  later  art  of  the  15th 
century  does  not  rival  the  perfection  of  these  masterpieces.  Roger 
Van  Der  Weiden  (vide' en)  is  a  noted  Fleming  of  the  middle  period 
of  the  century.  Characteristic  works  in  the  Berlin  Gallery  show 
the  small  dimensions  and  stiff  design  usual  in  Germanic  art  of  this 
time  but  they  have  the  deep  warm  colors  and  devout  spirit  which 
are  also  its  characteristics.  A  painting  in  Madrid  (243)  is  an  ex- 
cellent illustration  of  Van  Der  Weiden's  art. 

Hans  Memling  *  is  the  most  important  name  in  Flemish  art  for 
the  later  15th  century.  His  pictures  are  generally  of  smaU  size 
and  remarkable  for  delicacy  of  spirit  and  perfection  of  color.  As 
compared  with  contemporary  Italian  pictures,  they  illustrate,  how- 
ever the  backwardness  of  Germanic  art.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  South  German  artists  of  this  time.  Of  these,  Martin  ^Schon- 
gauer  (shem'gow  er)  and  Michael  Wohlgemuth  (vole' ga  moot)  are 
among  the  most  noted. 

Hans  Holbein  the  Elder  (1460-1524)   is  a  less   quoted  name,  but   an  illustration 
from  his  work  (244)  has  been  chosen  as  a  good  typical  picture. 

GERMAN  PAINTING  OF  THE  16TH  CENTURY. 
Albert  Diirer  (dew' rer)  (i47i-i528).-The  greatest  of  German 
artists,  Albert  Durer,  was  a  native  of  Nuremberg,  m  South  Ger- 
manv.  He  was  a  scholar  of  the  art  and  period  just  named,  and 
must  be  judged  by  the  progress  which  he  made  beyond  it,  as  well 
as  by  actual  worth.  This  actual  worth  is,  however,  very  great.  A 
certain  quaint  and  fantastic  quality,  which  inspires  much  of  his  art, 
belonged  to  his  individual  nature,  and  not  to  any  inadequacy  or 
ignorance  of  methods.    Diirer's  works  in  oil-painting  are  not  numer- 

*  Died  about  14.95. 


322  SIXTEENTH     CENTUKY     GEKMAN     PAINTING. 

ous,  and  among  these  his  portraits  are  most  renowned.  His  own 
portrait  (2-16)  is  especially  famed.  He  was  especially  devoted  to 
the  art  of  engraving,  and  in  this  field  his  productions  are  still 
ranked  among  the  very  greatest  ever  produced  (245). 

Hans  Holbein  the  Younger  (1495-1543),  of  Augsburg,  in  South 
Germany,  stands  next  to,  and  beside,  Diirer  as  the  greatest  of  Grer- 
man  painters.  He  was  more  successful  in  obtaining  commissions, 
and  has  left  a  much  larger  number  of  works.  His  most  renowned 
picture  is  the  large  Madonna  of  the  Dresden  Gallery,  known  as  the 
"  Meyer  Madonna."  It  was  painted  for  a  Burgomaster  Meyer,  in 
Basle,  whose  family  appears  at  devotion  in  the  painting.  The  gallery 
in  Darmstadt  possesses  a  duplicate  of  this  work.  Holbein's  life  as  a 
painter  was  spent  mainly  at  Basle,  in  Switzerland,  and  in  England, 
where  he  died,  as  court  painter  of  Henry  VHI.  The  gallery  in 
Basle  is  thus  an  important  center  for  the  study  of  his  works.  Many 
others,  mainly  portraits,  are  in  England,  and  represent  leading  En- 
glish persons  of  the  time.  The  ''Meyer  Madonna"  is  illustrated 
at  247. 

Lucas  Cranach  (1472-1553)  was  a  German  artist  (Saxon)  of  im- 
portance, subordinate  to  the  above  named,  but  known  to  history  as 
a  friend  of  Luther,  and  of  Frederick  the  Wise  of  Saxony  (248). 

Limits  of  the  Period. — Diirer  died  in  1528;  Holbein  left  Ger- 
many permanently  soon  after  1530.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  dates 
which  limit  the  productivity  in  Germany  of  her  greatest  artists 
correspond  very  nearly  to  those  which  close  the  great  period  in 
Italy  (p.  282).  The  religious  wars  and  social  revolutions  which 
attended  the  Reformation  are  an  explanation  of  the  sudden  decline 
of  German  art  in  painting  after  1520.  It  must  also  be  remembered 
that  the  Protestant  movement  was  long  antagonistic  to  the  pictorial 
embellishment  of  churches.  This  involved  an  antagonism  to  religious 
subjects,  and  these  were  almost  the  only  paintings  at  this  time. 

In  the  Netherlands  the  productivity  was  not  quenched  so  sud- 
denly, but  it  experienced  influences  which  prejudiced  its  value  and 
interest.  The  style  of  the  Italians  was  long  imitated  before  it  could 
be  absorbed  and  digested.  Meantime,  an  unhappy  combination  of 
unassimilated  Italian  traits  with  national  characteristics  was  so 
detrimental  to  Netherland  art  that  most  of  its  paintings  in  the 
later  16th  century  are  only  valuable  as  historic  memoranda,  and 
for  contrast  with  the  later  successes  of  Rembrandt  and  Rubens. 


245.     ALBERT    DURER.     ELECTOR   FREDERICK   THE   WISE   OF   SAXONY. 

Engraving  on  Copper. 


246.     ALBERT    DURER.     HIS   OWN    PORTRAIT,   MUNICH. 


J     J        J 


247.     HANS    HOLBEIN.     THE    "MEYER    MADONNA,"   DRESDEN. 


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SEVENTEENTH     CENTURY     DUTCH     PAINTING.  327 

Netherland  Artists  of  the  i6th  Century  frequently  exhibit  in 
earlier  works  the  independent  Netherland  style  developed  from  that 
of  the  15^Ji  century,  and  subsequentlj^  illustrate  the  inharmonious 
mixture  with  Italian  traits.  Their  two  styles  are  thus  absolutely 
unresemblant.  Among  artists  showing  this  transition  may  be 
named  Jan  Mabuse  (14:9  9-156-2). 

Quentin  Matsys  (1466-1530)  was  the  most  distinguished  Flemish 
artist  of  the  16tli  century  (2-i9).     Antwerp  was  his  home. 

17TH  CENTURY  DUTCH  PAINTERS. 

Political  and  Religious  History. — At  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  the 
Netherland  artists  liad  succeeded  in  acquiring  all  that  could  be  learned  from 
technical  studies  in  Italian  art  without  sacrificing,  as  in  the  16th  century,  their 
own  native  tastes  in  conception  and  in  choice  of  subjects.  Meantime,  the  divis- 
ions of  religion  and  of  politics  had  separated  the  Protestant  Dutch  Republic 
(Holland)  from  the  Southern  Belgic  Netherlands.  (The  latter  remained  a  territory 
of  Spain  until  they  were  returned  to  Austrian  rule  in  1713  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht.)  Hence  the  division  between  the  "Dutch  School,"  headed  by  Rembrandt, 
and  the  "  Flemish  School,"  headed  by  Rubens  and  Van  Dyck.  This  division  is 
not  always  distinct,  and  it  sometimes  disappears.  The  Dutch  painters  were,  how- 
ever, foremost  in  the  choice  of  a  class  of  subjects  especially  affected  by  the  19th 
century,  viz.,  landscapes,  cattle-pieces,  and  domestic  scenes. 

The  Dutch  Republic. — After  separation  from  Spain  during  the  later  16th  cent- 
ury, the  Dutch  Provinces  became  the  commercial  carriers  and  sea-traders  of  the 
world.  They  were  especially  active  in  the  trade  with  India  and  the  East.  A 
period  of  almost  fabulous  prosperity  ensued,  in  which  the  common  people  became 
the  patrons  of  a  domestic  art  which  contrasts  in  every  possible  way  with  the 
styles  and  school  of  the  Italians.  Technically,  however,  it  had  drawn  much  from 
these. 

Rembrandt  Van  Ryn  (1606-1669),  generally  known  as  Rembrandt, 
was  resident  at  Amsterdam.  He  is  distinguished  from  the  Dutch 
artists  in  general  by  the  larger  size  of  his  paintings,  and  by  a  less 
trivial  class  of  subjects,  and  is  noted,  like  them,  for  the  realism  of 
his  methods  and  the  absence  of  ideality  in  his  conceptions.  His 
subjects,  when  religious,  have  none  of  the  traditional  character,  and 
are  frequently  lacking  in  the  dignity  which  a  traditional  religious 
type  is  apt  to  possess.  His  "  Christ,"  in  the  Louvre,  and  his  "  Sam- 
son," in  the  Berlin  Museum,  are  instances  of  this  class. 

In  Technical  Methods  Rembrandt  continued,  and  elaborated  the 
" chiar-oscuro "  of  Correggio  (p.  283),  but  in  thoroughly  independent 
and  masterly  execution.  His  preference  for  contrasts  of  deep 
gloom  and  dark  background,  with  some  few  salient  points  of  bright 


328  SEVENTEENTH     CENTURY     DUTCH     PAINTING. 

light,   was    such    that    photographs    of    most     of   his    pictures     are 
almost  useless  as  illustrations. 

Rembrandt's  Portraits  are  world-renowned  examples  of  masterly- 
execution,  as  well  as  of  perception  of  character.  Only  three  other 
artists  of  the  1 7th  century — viz.,  Rubens,  Van  Dyck,  and  Velasquez- 
can  claim  to  he  his  equals  in  portraiture. 

Compared  with  the  EarHer  Italians,  for  instance,  with  Raphael, 
Rembrandt  must  yield  the  distinction  which  belongs  to  the  superior 
nobility  of  their  subjects  and  conceptions  ;  although  standing  on 
equal  ground  as  regards  execution  and  science  "Of  design. 

His  Most  Noted  Painting  is  the  "Street  Patrol,"  at  Amsterdam. 
The  popular  title  of  this  painting,  which  is  generally  known  as  the 
"  Night  Watch,"  is  an  illustration  of  his  preference  for  strong  effects 
of  light  and  shadow,  as  this  title  is  attached  to  the  picture  of  a 
scene  by  day-light.  An  important  work  in  the  Dresden  Gallery  is 
the  "  Portrait  of  the  Artist  with  his  Wife."  All  the  leading  galleries 
of  Northern  Europe  contain  important  works  of  the  artist.  Among 
these  is  the  one  chosen  for  illustration  (250). 

Other  Painters  of  the  Dutch  School. — The  multitude  of  Dutch 
painters  is  great,  and  familiarity  with  their  works  is  the  best  means 
to  memorizing  their  names.  Each  artist  was  mainly  distinguished 
for  some  special  class  of  subjects,  so  that  the  mention  of  the  list  is 
a  means  also  to  the  specification  of  important  types  of  paintings. 

In  Landscapes,  the  leading  names  are :  Meindert  Hobbema, 
Jacob  Ruysdael,  and  Aldert  Van  Everdingen.  Ruysdael  is  especially 
distinguished  for  the  mysterious  gloom  and  tragic  wildness  of  his 
storm-tossed  skies  and  mountain  scenery  and  for  somber  mood  (251). 

In  Cattle-pieces,  Albert  Cuyp  and  Paul  Potter  (252)  are  the  rep- 
resentative names. 

In  Marines,  William  Van  de  Velde  and  Ludolf  Backhuysen  are 
most  quoted. 

Genre  Paintings. — Domestic,  anecdotal,  and  other  trivial  subjects 
are  generally  classified  under  the  French  word  "Genre."  Many 
Dutch  artists  were  distinguished  in  different  specialties  of  this  field. 
The  most  noted  are  Franz  Hals,  Adrian  Van  Ostade  (2  54,  2  55), 
Franz  Von  Mieris,  William  Von  Mieris,  Gerard  Terburg  (253), 
Gabriel  Metzu,  Adrian  Brouwer,  Caspar  Netscher,  and  Jan  Steen. 

The  illustrations  chosen  for  some  of  these  artists  will  give  an 
idea  of  the   subjects  affected   by  them.    The  pictures  of  the  Dutch 


©      9   »  »     _    «  >  j 


250.     REMBRANDT.     PORTRAIT   OF    AN    UNKNOWN    MAN,   ST,  PETERSBURG. 


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SEVENTEENTH     CENTURY     DUTCH     AND     FLEMISH     PAINTING.       335 

School  are  generally  characterized  by  small  size,  carefully  elaborate 
execution,  and  apt  preceptions  of  character.  On  the  other  hand, 
none  of  its  painters  rival  or  approach  the  great  Italians,  as  re- 
gards elevation  of  subject   and  conception,  unless   it  be    the   artists 

in  landscape. 

In  Paintings  of  Flowers  and  Still  Life,  which  are  also  character- 
istic works  of  the  Dutch  art,  Jan  David  De  Heem  and  Jan  Van 
Huysum  are  most  quoted.    The  latter  belongs  to   the  18th  century. 

Adrian  Van  der  Werff  was  almost  the  only  Dutch  artist  who 
affected  Bibhcal  and  mythological  subjects.  The  peculiar  finish  of 
his  pictures  makes  them  available  subjects  for  photograph  copy,  but 
this  finish  is  cold  and  over-refined. 

Battle-pieces   and   equestrian   scenes  have   a  noted  illustrator  m 

Philip  Wouvermans. 

Tavern  Scenes  are  a  favorite  subject  of  the  Dutch  School, 
Adrian  Van  Ostade,  already  mentioned,  an  artist  of  German  birth, 
belongs  to  the  Dutch  School  by  residence  and  studies,  and  is  one  of 
the  distinguished  names  in  this  field  (254). 

Solomon  Koninck  (256)  and  Godfrey  Schalken  (257)  are  less 
distinguished  names. 

17TH   CENTURY   FLEMISH   ARTISTS. 

Flemish  Painters  achieved  distinction  in  all  the  classes  of  sub- 
jects just  enumerated,  but,  as  rated  by  relative  importance,  only  the 
following  need  be  mentioned  in  a  brief  summary : 

David  Teniers  (the  Younger)  was  a  noted  painter  of  tavern  scenes 

and  peasant  life  (258). 

Jan    Fyt   and    Franz    Snyders   were   noted   painters   of   ammaJs, 

hunting  scenes,  game,  and  still  life  (2  60). 

All  other  Flemish  names  are,  however,  thrown  into  shade  by  those 
of  Jordaens,  Van  Dyck,  and  Rubens. 

Peter  Paul  Rubens  (1577-1640)  was  an  artist  of  remarkable  fer- 
tility, surrounded  by  many  pupils,  and  exercising  wide-spread  inflv.- 
€nce.  His  greatest  picture  is  conceded,  by  universal  consent,  to  be 
the  "Descent  from  the  Cross,"  in  Antwerp,  where  he  was  resident. 
All  the  important  gaUeries  of  Europe  contain  notable  examples  of 
his  work,  in  religious  art,  in  mythological  subjects,  and  in  portraits. 
Examples  at  261  and  262. 


836  SEVENTEENTH     CENPrRY     FLEMISH     PAINTING. 

Characteristics  of  Rubens.— In  both  Dutch  and  Flemish  art  there  was  an  ele- 
ment of  coarseness  in  the  models  who  served  as  types  for  the  artist.  This  coarse- 
ness was  the  result  of  life  in  a  climate  where  much  eating  and  diinking  are 
essential  to  existence.  Rubens'  spirit  was  vivacious  and  exuberant,  and  his  colors 
are  ruddy  and  warm.  Under  these  conditions,  the  Flemish  models  lost  none  of 
their  own  abundance  of  flesh  and  hearty  life.  Thus  the  pictures  of  this  artist 
constantly  find  themselves  subject  to  criticism  by  delicate  natures  who  have  not 
^earned  to  condone  this  element  of  coarseness,  or  who  have  not  seen  the  greatest 
works  of  the  master.  The  authoritative  criticism  of  experts  is  agreed,  however, 
in  placing  Rubens  beside  Rembrandt  and  Velasquez,  as  one  of  the  greatest  artists 
of  the  century,  wdien  judged  by  his  best  works.  The  points  which  give  him  this 
standing,  aside  from  his  fine  technical  qualities  as  a  painter,  lie  in  his  vigoi'ous 
and  powerful  spirit,  and  in  a  serious  nature  which  rarely  deserts  him  in  religious 
subjects.  This  serious  element  is  otherwise  very  generally  lacking  in  the  religious 
pictures  of  the  century,  aside  from  tliose  of  the  Spanish  School. 

Anthony  Van  Dyck  (i 599-1641)  was  a  pupil  of  Rubens,  and  as  a 
technical  expert  may  bo  placed  beside  him.  In  the  matter  of  con- 
ception he  was  by  no  means  his  equal.  This  appears  in  his  relig- 
ious subjects,  which  are  weaker  in  sentiment.  As  paintings,  these 
works  are  also  remarkably  fine,  and  as  a  portrait-painter  Van  Dyck 
is  among  the  greatest  of  all  time.  The  portrait  of  Charles  I.,  in  the 
Louvre,  is  a  well-known  work.  The  "Children  of  Charles  I.,"  in  the 
Dresden  Gallery,  is  also  one  of  his  best.     A  good  example  at  2  63. 

Jacob  Jordaens  (1593-1678)  also  belonged  to  the  School  of 
Rubens.  The  Flemish  coarseness,  which  has  been  noted,  appears  to 
excess  in  his  Avorks,  and  they  are  only  relished  by  those  who  can 
excuse  this  quality  on  account  of  the  exuberant  vigor  and  vitality 
of  the  artist.  Jordaens  was  an  excellent  colorist  and  painter,  but 
not  distinguished  for  elevation  of  conception  or  serious  qualities. 
A  very  fine  Jordaens,  "The  Triumph  of  Bacchus,"  is  owned  by  the 
Museum  of  New  York.    A  characteristic  picture  at  259. 


SPANISH   SCHOOL    OF    THE    17TH    CENTURY. 

Political  Connections  with  Italy. — Flanders,  Naples,  and  JMilan 
were  all  Spanish  provinces  at  this  time.  Italian  influences  in  Spain 
are  easily  understood  through  this  political  connection,  Avhich  also 
reached  m  indirect  ways  over  other  Italian  States.  As  with  Rubens 
and  Rembrandt,  so  with  Velasquez  and  Murillo  (mcDo  rel'  yo),  the 
art  was  technically  drawn  from  Italian  sources,  modified  by  the 
national  and  individual  genius   and  surroundings.    There  are  other 


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26i.  RUBENS.  CHRIST  AND  THE  MAGDALEN,  MUNICH. 


262.     RUBENS.     PORTRAIT   OF    MARIA    MEDICI,    MADRID. 


263.     VAN    DYCK.     PORTRAIT    OF    GUSTAVUS   ADOLPHU& 


264.     VELASQUEZ.     THE    INFANTA    MARGUERITA,    LOUVRE. 


36s.    MURILLO.     DETAIL   OF   THE   "IMMACULATE   CONCEPTION,"    LOUVRE. 


366.     MURILLO.     VISION   OF   ST.   FRANCIS,   MUSEUM,   SEVILLE. 


267.    Poussln.     "The  Seasons  Dancing  before  Time. 


253.      Claude    Lorraine.      Evening.      Acis   and    Galatea. 


SEVENTEENTH     CENTURY     SPANISH     AND     FRENCH     PAINTING.      347 

Spanish  painters  of  distinction  beside  the  two  just  named,  but  none 
who   are   as  generally  quoted,  or  who  are  as  well  known  in  Toreign 

galleries. 

Velasquez  (1599-1660),  a  resident  of  Madrid,  is  especially  well 
known  for  his  portraits  (264).  These  rank  among  the  greatest 
pictures  in  existence,  but  the  Gallery  of  Madrid  contains  a  number 
of  fine  pictures  in  other  fields  of  art.  His  masterpiece  is  the  "  Sur- 
render of  Breda,"  in  this  gahery. 

Murillo  (1618-1682)  was  resident  at  Seville.  His  talent  was  first 
perceived  and  encouraged  by  Velasquez.  His  most  generally  quoted 
painting  is  the  "  Immaculate  Conception,"  in  the  Louvre.  The  Gal- 
lery of  Madrid  is  rich  in  his  best  pictures,  and  aU  the  European 
collections  contain  good  examples.  Religious  subjects  were  his  pref- 
erence, and  thev  have  no  equals,  for  warmth  of  feeling,  durmg  the 
same  period.  The  illustrations  (265,  266)  are  indications  of  his 
style.  Next  to,  or  beside,  Rubens  ho  was  the  greatest  rehgious 
artist  of  his  day. 

FRENCH  PAINTERS. 

Early  Period.-Aside  from  names  known  to  local  and  specialist 
investigations,  French  painting  has  not  left  much  of  renown  dating 
from  the  15th  and  16th  centuries. 

The  17th  Century  is  especially  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
Nicholas  Poussin  (1594-1665).-With  this  artist,  classical  tendencies 
in  composition  and  subjects  are  very  apparent  (267).  His  genms 
was  of  superior  order.  Jaques  Cahot  (zhak  ca  lo')  was  a  contem- 
porary  famed  for  his  sketches  and  caricatures. 

Claude  Lorraine  (1600-1682),  whose  specialty  was  landscape 
painting,  occupies  an  exceptional  position  in  the  art  history  of  the 
17th  century.  The  province  from  which  he  is  named  was  then,  as 
regards  government,  a  Germanic  territory,  although  French  ten- 
dencies and  culture  were  already  dominant  in  it.  Claude  is  gener- 
ahy  numbered  with  French  artists.  His  residence  was,  however 
mainly  in  Italy,  and  his  influence  was  most  apparent  on  scholars  ot 
the  Netherlands.     As  an   artist,  Claude  also  occupies  an  exceptional 

^""'ciaude's  Landscapes  (2  67)  reflect  the  classical  atmosphere  of  Italy 
in  details  and  surroundings,  and  are  distinguished  for  their  effects 
of  hazy  golden  sunlight.     There  is  no  other  landscape  artist  who  is 


348  EIGIITf^KXTn     CE^'TUliY     TAINTING. 

SO  generally  quoted  by  the  history  of  art,  and  ])y  popular  reputa- 
tion, and  in  his  peculiar  field  he  is  unrivaled.  There  are  important 
works  by  this  painter  in  neai-ly  all  the  European  galleries. 

Other  Landscape  Artists. — Ruysdael  and  Hobbema  (jj.  328)  may  probably  be 
considered  his  equals  in  their  own  peculiar  and  different  sphere.  The  whole  cent- 
ury is,  however,  especially  distinguished  by  its  landscapes,  and  independent  land- 
scapes as  distinct  from  the  backgrounds  of  other  subjects  had  rarely  been  painted 
befoi'e  this  time.  In  this  field,  many  Italians  of  the  period  were  very  success- 
ful ;  for  instance,  Domenichino,  in  the  landscapes  of  his  mj-thological  pictures. 
The  name  of  Salvator  Rosa  has  already  been  mentioned  in  this  connection 
(p.  307).  Rubens  and  Rembrandt  were  also  very  great  landscape  painters, 
although  their  works  of  this  class  are  rare.  The  landscapes  of  Nicholas  Poussin 
are  also  of  great  excallence. 

THE    18TH    CENTURY. 

Historical  Review. — The  middle  of  the  17th  century  is,  gener- 
ally speaking,  the  limit  of  its  best  works  in  Italian  painting.  Not 
many  of  the  greater  artists  mentioned,  either  of  the  Italian,  Dutch, 
or  Flemish  schools,  lived  beyond  the  third  quarter  of  the  century. 
Important  dates,  nearly  contemporary  with  the  decline  in  painting, 
may  be  noted  to  advantage.  This  decline  begins  about  the  time  of 
the  opening  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  of  France,  during  the 
period  of  the  English  Charles  II.,  and  after  the  Peace  of  Westphalia 
in  German  history.  This  peace  (in  1648)  established  the  petty  des- 
potic sovereignties  of  Germany  as  independent  States,  and  in  all 
European  countries  this  was  the  time  when  the  courts  of  the  des- 
potic sovereigns  became  the  centers  of  national  life.  It  is  true  that 
these  despotisms  had  been  established  in  the  interest  of  the  trading 
and.  commercial  classes,  but  they  produced  or  reflected  an  artificial 
condition  of  society  which  continued  during  the  18th  centurj'  until 
the  Greek  Revival  (p.  130)  and  the  French  Revolution.  Probably 
the  deficiency  of  vital  art  during  the  18th  century  has  a  related 
explanation. 

Germany. — Some  few  names,  aside  from  the  greatiM-  ones  of  En- 
glish art,  may  be  quoted  for  this  period.  In  Germany,  Denner  rep- 
resents a  minutely  realistic  art,  in  which  the  microscopic  imitation 
of  details  is  carried  to  the  extreme  pitch.  Angelica  Kaufmann  and 
Raphael  Mengs,  Germans  long  resident  in  Rome,  were  superior 
artists ;  both  representatives  of  the  purer  and  nobler  tendencies 
which  were  beginning  to  be  manifest. 


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EIGHTEENTH    CENTUKY    PAINTING.  351 

France. —  In  the  French  art  of  the  18th  century,  Antony  Watteau 
is  especially  celebrated  (2  69).  Most  of  his  pictures  represent  the 
court  life  and  court  amusements  of  the  time.  Besides  this  historic 
interest,  they  are  by  no  means  destitute  of  fine  qualities.  The 
name  of  Greuze  holds  the  next  place  in  popularity  (2  70). 

Italy. —  The  Tiepoli,*  of  Venice,  have  already  been  mentioned 
(p.  290),  with  the  names  of  Guardi  and  Canaletto. 

ENGLAND. 

Reynolds  and  Gainsborough. — England  was  the  most  important 
center  of  the  art  of  painting  in  the  18th  century.  Sir  Joshua 
Keynolds  (1723-1792)  and  Thomas  Gainsborough  (1727-1788) 
revived  or  kept  alive  the  great  traditions  of  earlier  masters  with 
independent  spirit  and  individual  genius.  It  is  for  their  portraits 
especially  that  these  artists   are  renowned   (271,   2  72).f 

CONCLUSION. 

The  study  of  historic  painting  is  a  branch  of  polite  culture  which 
may,  and  must,  be  followed  up  without  close  reference  to  technicaJ 
criticism.  We  may,  with  equal  justice,  occasionally  criticise  the 
grammar  of  Shakespeare,  or  the  drawing  of  Michael  Angelo,  but  the 
quality  of  the  art  is  not  affected  thereby.  With  modern  paintings, 
also,  it  is  desirable  that  we  should  be  able  to  rise  above  the  elemen- 
tary principles  of  technical  instruction,  that  we  should  understand 
how  to  look  for  ideas,  how  to  weigh  the  spirit  of  the  work.  In  order 
to  aim  at,  or  reach,  this  standpoint  in  a  spirit  of  modesty,  of  catho- 
licity, of  forbearance,  and  of  appreciation,  the  preliminary  study  of  his- 
toric art  is  an  almost  essential  or  highly  desirable  preparation. 

NOTES    ON    THE    ILLUSTRATIONS    FOR    HISTORIC    PAINTING   IN    NORTHERN 

EUROPE. 

(239-272,  inclusive;  pp.  315-351.) 

For  the  15th  century,  see  ISTos.  239-244.  For  the  16th  century,  see  Nos. 
245-249.  For  the  17th  century,  see  Nos.  252-268.  For  the  18th  century,  see 
Nos.  269-272. 

*Pluralof  Tiepolo. 

lOne  of  the  very  finest  works  of  Sir  Joshua  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Musevim,  N.  Y. 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  PAINTING. 

In  all  summaries  of  important  subjects  where  space  is  restricted  and  the  details 
are  numerous,  the  first  thing  to  consider  is  the  perspective  of  the  subject  as  a  whole. 
We  need  to  maintain  such  a  balance  in  the  presentation  of  the  facts  that  the  most  im- 
portf  nt  do  not  escape  us  in  the  multitude  of  details.  In  condensed  summaries  regard- 
ing modern  art,  our  task  is  especially  difficult,  and  the  arrangement  of  facts  must  be 
carefully  considered.  The  names  of  many  painters  claim  equal  attention,  if  strict 
justice  is  to  be  done.  American  art  deserves  special  attention  from  Americans.  In 
addition,  each  European  country  must  have  some  special  mention.  We  shall,  there- 
fore, adopt  the  following  plan  of  treatment. 

First,  the  broadest  and  most  important  facts  in  the  history  of  modern  painting 
will  be  sketched.  The  claims  of  American  art  will  next  receive  attention.  Then,  a 
brief  summary  regarding  important  artists,  not  previously  mentioned,  will  be  given. 

Although  all  divisions  either  of  general  history,  or  of  art  history,  according  to 
centuries,  are  to  some  extent  arbitrary,  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  affords  a 
fairly  definite  starting-point  for  an  account  of  modern  painting.  At  this  time,  the 
French  Revolution  and  the  events  which  centered  around  it  were  controlling  factors, 
not  only  in  general  history,  but  also  to  some  extent  in  the  history  of  Art.  The  breaking 
down  of  aristocratic  and  social  distinctions,  and  the  gift  of  legal  equality  to  all  citizens, 
were  the  inspiring  ideas  of  all  that  was  good  in  this  Revolution,  and  these  ideas  con- 
tinued to  make  their  way  over  Europe  under  the  ascendency  of  Bonaparte,  whose 
military  despotism  continued  to  represent  all  the  essential  ideas  of  the  Revolution  and 
contributed  v^ery  much  to  their  spread  beyond  France.  The  political  ascendency  of 
France  in  Europe  was  opposed  by  England,  which  represented  conservative  resistance 
to  the  excesses  of  the  Revolution  and  to  the  personal  ambition  of  Bonaparte,  without 
ultimately  antagonizing  the  social  and  intellectual  changes  which  were  going  on  in 
Europe.  These  had,  in  fact,  as  far  as  liberal  government  is  concerned,  been  so  far 
especially  active  in  Great  Britain.  But  if  the  openly  manifest  political  and  material 
forces  of  Europe  are  seen  in  their  greatest  activity  in  the  rivalry  of  France  and  Eng- 
land, Germany  played  a  still  more  important  part  in  the  intellectual  movement  of  the 
period,  and  in  the  later  part  of  the  18th  century  produced  the  greatest  leaders  in  liter- 
ature, in  music,  and  in  science.  Now  the  history  of  art  is  only  a  reflex  of  the  society 
which  produces  it,  and  it  is  no  accident  that  we  find  in  the  three  countries  of  Germany, 
Englard  and  France  the  first  important  activity  of  19th  century  painting. 

T^'^  activity  and  the  success  of  Germany  were  however  greatest  in  literature  and 
music.  In  the  arts  of  design  her  studies  were  especially  those  of  the  antiquarian 
and  historian,  and  in  this  field  she  then  outranked  every  other  country,  and  has  since 
continued  to  be  preeminent.  France,  in  the  time  of  Bonaparte,  had  need  of  painters  to 
celebrate  his  victories,  to  feed  the  French  love  of  military  glory,  and  to  represent  the 
great  historic  characters  of  his  time.  But  of  all  these  countries  England  was  in  closest 
touch  with  traditions  of  the  older  historic  painters;  for  in  the  ISth  century  the  EngUsh 
Schoc^l  undoubtedly  took  the  lead  in  European  art.  In  the  early  19th  centur^^  it 
6t\ll  held  this  position. 


MODERN     TAINTING.  35  i 


ENGLISH  PAINTING  — FIRST  QUARTER   OF   THE   19th  CENTURY. 

If  we  wisn  to  present  in  a  few  words  a  clear  idea  of  19th  century  painting,  we 
must  begin  by  accenting  the  superiority  of  English  art  during  the  first  thirty 
years  of  the  century.  The  names  of  Constable  and  Turner  certainly  outshine  those  of 
all  Continental  artists  during  that  time.  In  their  own  department  of  landscape 
painting,  they  may  also  be  regarded  as  the  rivals  or  equals  of  their  great  prede- 
cessors of  the  17th  century.  Next  to  them  in  importance  comes  the  name  of  Etty, 
while  Benjamin  Robert  Haydon  deserves  mention  for  his  powers  as  «,  draughtsman. 
Sir  David  Wilkie  was  another  important  artist. 

John  Constable  was  born  at  East  Bergholt  in  Suffolk  in  1776.  His 
predilections  for  studying  design  were  not  encouraged  by  his  father, 
who  was  a  yeoman  farmer  and  miller.  His  first  instruction  in 
this  field  was  obtained  from  a  plumber.  It  is  said  that  his  wide 
knowledge  of  atmospheric  effects  was  acquired  in  one  of  his  father's 
windmills,  in  which  he  was  employed  as  a  workman.  His  first  en- 
couragement as  an  artist  came  from  a  certain  Sir  George  Beaumont, 
who  owned  a  very  important  painting  by  Claude  Lorrain.  It  is  certain 
that  Constable's  early  work  was  inspired  by  Claude,  by  Ruysdael,  and 
by  the  earlier  English  landscape  painter,  Wilson.  Constable  began 
art  study  in  London  in  1795,  but  was  obliged  to  return  to  work 
in  his  father's  office  two  years  later.  In  1799  he  returned  to  London 
and  to  the  study  of  art,  and  in  1802  he  exhibited  his  first  picture. 
It  was,  however,  nearly  forty  years  after  beginning  art  studies  that 
he  sold  a  picture  outside  of  his  circle  of  friends  and  immediate  ac- 
quaintances, and  late  in  life  he  was  still  obliged  to  depend  on  portrait- 
painting  for  a  living,  although  landscape  was  always  his  true  field. 
His  pronounced  success  as  an  artist  in  the  estimation  of  later  criticism 
dates  from  his  picture  of  "Dedham  Vale,"  painted  in  1811.  It  was 
on  the  continent  of  Europe  that  Constable  found  the  greatest  appre- 
ciation. Eugene  Delacroix  and  the  French  Romantic  School  were 
outspoken  in  their  admiration  of  him.  He  was  first  known  in  France 
by  a  painting,  "The  Hay-wain,"  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Salon  of  1821 
by  a  French  purchaser,  and  he  subsequentlj^  became  still  more  cele- 
brated by  the  success  of  his  "  White  Horse,"  exhibited  at  Lille  in  1825. 

Constable  was  made  a  Royal  Academician  in  1829,  but  died  in  1837  without 
having  achieved  either  fame  or  fortune  in  his  own  country.  Although  disparaged 
by  Mr.  Ruskin,  his  standing  is  now  indisputably  equal  to  that  of  Turner.  Two  of 
his  greatest  pictures  were  presented  to  the  Louvre  in  1873.  He  is  well  represented 
in  the  National  Gallery  of  London,  and  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  Two  of 
his  greatest  works  are  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  New  York.  One  of  these, 
"  A  Lock  on  the  Stour,"  was  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy  in  1824  and  was  sold 


354  MODERN     PAINTIXG. 

on  the  first  day  of  the  exhibition  for  iS7"'5.      The   other  painting  is  called  "  The 
Valley  Farm." 

J.  M.  W.  Turner. —  It  has  just  been  said  that  Constable  cannot  be  considered  the 
inferior  of  Turner,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  as  a  matter  of  popular  fame  and  of 
every-day  popular  quotation,  the  naine  of  Turner  is  the  most  famous  in  the  annals 
of  English  art.  His  complete  name  was  Joseph  Mallord  "William,  but  he  signed 
himself  invariably  as  J.  M.  W.,  and  is  thus  generally  known.  Turner  was  born  in 
London  in  1775.  His  father  was  a  barber.  The  boy  had  no  advantages  in  the  way 
of  book  education.  His  English  was  ungrammatical  thi'oughout  his  life.  He  never 
knew  a  foi'eign  language  and  had  the  slightest  possible  acquaintance  with,  history 
and  literature,  as  far  as  the  student's  point  of  view  is  concerned.  In  person  he  was 
unattractive,  in  manners  he  was  almost  boorish,  as  regards  social  intercourse  he 
always  lived  a  life  of  complete  isolation.  This  is  the  man  who  left  a  fortune  of 
$600,000  at  his  death,  for  the  support  of  decayed  artists,  and  bequeathed  more  than 
one  hundred  of  his  own  pictures  to  the  British  Nation.  Most  of  these  pictures  were 
worth  large  sums  on  the  open  market,  and  many  of  them  he  had  himself  repur- 
chased from  the  original  buyers  with  a  view  to  this  bequest. 

Turner  acquired  fame  early  in  life.  He  Avas  recognized  by  the 
Royal  Academy  and  was  made  an  associate  member  as  early  as 
1799,  and  was  elected  to  full  membership  four  years  later.  We  may 
explain  this  early  success  by  noting  that  Turner's  early  work  did  not 
exhibit  the  imaginative  daring  of  his  later  life.  It  was,  on  the  con- 
trary, rather  commonplace,  and  not  calculated  to  rouse  that  jealousy 
on  the  part  of  inferior  men  which  is  generally  the  real  obstacle  to 
the  success  of  a  great  artist.  Having  a  sure  standing,  to  begin  with, 
he  continued  throughout  his  life  to  hold  the  highest  rank,  not  only 
in  the  estimation  of  critics  like  Ruskin,  but  also  in  the  esteem  of  his 
fellow  artists  and  of  the  picture-buying  public.  It  was  certainly  the 
power  of  genius  and  of  imagination  which  thus  conquered  the  world, 
in  spite  of  social  and  personal  disadvantages.  But  this  genius  was 
not  simplj^  that  of  imaginative  power ;  it  was  also  the  genius  of 
dogged  hard  work,  of  pitiful  economy,  of  slavish  labor,  of  constant 
self-denial,  and  of  patient  observation.  Turner's  early  artistic  work 
was  mainly  that  of  a  hack  illustrator  employed  to  do  topographical 
illustration  for  magazines,  and  in  this  occupation,  Avliich  led  him  to 
visit  many  parts  of  England  on  foot,  he  acquired  his  wide  experience 
with  visible  nature.  He  subsequently  gave  much  attention  to  the 
works  of  the  older  landscape  masters,  but  alwaj's  with  the  idea  of 
rivalling  or  excelling  them,  rather  than  for  the  purpose  of  imitation. 
In  spite  of  the  roughness  of  his  manners  and  his  indifference  to  ap- 
pearances, he  had  a  kind  heart,  in  evidence  of  which  man}-  touching 
incidents  are  related,  and  the  general  nobility  of  his  character  is  ap- 
parent in  the  peculiar  disposition  made  by  his  will  of  his  fortune 


00  t 


373     JOHN  CONSTABLE,    THE  CORN   FIELD. 


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MODERN     PAINTING.  obll 

and  of  the  large  collection  which  he  had  made  of  his  own  pictures. 
He  died  in  1851.  After  1845  his  works  showed  a  degeneration  in 
quality  due  to  old  age  and  possibly  to  his  interest  ia  problems  of 
color  and  atmospheric  effect  which  are  more  or  less  beyond  the  ca- 
pacities of  pictorial  art.  Owing  to  the  bequest  mentioned,  the  largest 
collection  of  Turner's  work  is  that  in  the  National  Gallery  of  Lon- 
don, but  there  are  very  fine  examples  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
and  in  the  Lenox  Library  of  New  York. 

The  Metropolitan  Museum  purchased  in  1896  the  magnificent  Turner  Ivuown  as 
the  "Whale  Ship,"  or  "The  Good  Ship  Erebus."  The  other  great  Turner  of  this 
Museum  is  a  view  of  "  Saltash,"  with  the  river  Tamar  in  the  foreground.  The 
"  Slave  Ship,"  now  owned  by  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  is  a  noted  picture, 
but  not  one  of  the  best.  Ruskin's  "Modern  Painters"  is  a  work  in  five  volumes 
largely  devoted  to  the  laudation  of  Turner.  This  whole  work  developed  from  an 
essay  on  Turner's  greatness.  Turner  was  proficient  in  water  colors,  and  in  etching 
and  engraving,  as  well  as  in  oil-painting.  His  "Liber  Studiorum"  is  a  series  of 
sketches  published  between  1807  and  1819,  which  were  professedly  issued  in  rivalry 
of  a  similar  work  of  Claude  Lorrain,  the  "Liber  Veritatis."  It  is  known  that  prints 
from  these  plates  were,  at  the  time  of  issue,  so  little  valued  that  some  of  them  were 
used  for  lighting  fires.     They  are  now  worth  f  1000  apiece. 

As  regards  the  points  of  relation  and  of  contrast  in  Turner  and  Constable,  it 
may  be  said  that  both  were  masters  of  design,  and  of  broad  and  effective  method, 
and  that  both  were  men  of  great  imaginative  and  intellectual  capacity,  but  Con- 
stable was  more  evenly  successful  as  a  colorist,  and  more  strictly  attentive  to  the 
reproduction  of  what  the  eye  actually  sees.  Turner,  on  the  other  hand,  was  rather 
bent  on  the  use  of  the  matter-of-fact  as  a  starting-point  for  purely  imaginative 
conceptions.  In  these  imaginative  creations  he  was  not  uniformly  successful  from 
the  standpoint  of  color  harmony  in  a  decorative  sense ;  but  the  masterly  quality 
of  his  execution  as  regards  design  is  utterly  beyond  cavil.  So  are  the  true  poetic 
insight  and  imaginative  power  of  his  ai^t.  In  the  numerous  cases  where  his  color 
scheme  is  irreproachable  it  is  not  easy  to  consider  any  other  landscape  or  marine 
painting  as  superior  to  Turner's. 

William  Etty  takes  the  third  place  in  order  of  distinction  among 
the  English  painters  of  the  early  nineteenth  century.  Historical 
compositions  and  figure  pieces  rather  than  landscape  were  his  spe- 
cialty. As  a  colorist  pure  and  simple  he  has  had  no  English  superior 
or  rival.  His  best  works  are  in  the  National  G-allery  of  Scotland,  and 
it  was  the  Scottish  Academy  which  first  discerned  his  genius.  He 
was  born  at  York  in  1787.  His  father  was  a  miller  and  baker.  He 
began  life  as  an  apprentice  to  a  printer  in  Hull,  in  which  situation 
he  spent  seven  years.  Although  he  began  work  as  an  art  student  in 
London  in  1806,  he  did  not  achieve  any  success  with  his  exhibited 
pictures  until  1820,  and  was  not  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy 
until  1824. 


358  MODERN    PAINTING. 

Etty  \isited  Italy  on  two  occasions,  and  was  a  faithful  student  of  the  old 
Venetian  painters.  In  his  later  life  he  was  successful  in  obtaining  appreciation 
and  commissions,  and  was  able,  in  the  year  before  his  death,  to  make  a  collection 
exhibit  of  his  works  in  London.  He  died  in  1849.  The  finest  Etty  in  the  United 
States  is  owned  by  Mr.  Hem-j'  T.  Chapman  of  Brooklyn.  In  London  the  National 
Gallerj^  and  the  South  Kensington  Museum  possess  good  examples. 

Benjamin  Robert  Haydon  was  born  at  PljTHOUth  in  1786.  His  father  was  a  book- 
seller, stationer,  and  publisher.  The  literary  tastes  which  the  son  thus  imbibed  re- 
mained with  hhn  through  life.  Haydon's  associations  with  men  of  letters  were 
subsequently  wide-spread  and  intimate  ;  for  example,  with  Sir  "Walter  Scott,  with 
Leigh  Hunt,  and  with  Wordsworth.  The  biography  published  by  Haydon's  son, 
which  contains  his  correspondence  and  table-talk,  is  the  most  valuable  extant  work 
for  a  general  knowledge  of  the  literary  celebrities  of  that  day.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds 
had  once  attended  the  school  in  Plymouth  at  which  Haydon  was  educated,  and  on 
the  ceiling  of  the  school-room  there  was  a  sketch  in  burnt-cork  by  Reynolds,  to  which 
the  boy  gave  constant  attention.  He  was  also  drawn  to  the  study  of  art  by  the 
perusal  of  Reynolds'  lectures. 

Haydon  began  studies  at  the  Royal  Academy  in  London  in  180-i. 
In  isou  his  picture  of  "Dentatus"  was  excluded  from  the  main  exhi- 
bition of  the  Royal  Academy  and  was  hung  in  a  small  ante-room. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  a  quarrel  with  that  bod}'  which  lasted 
through  his  life.  About  the  same  time  his  great  interest  in  the  Elgin 
Marbles,  which  had  recently  been  brought  to  London,  involved  him  in 
controversy  with  the  fashionable  critics  of  the  day.  This  artist  was  for 
several  years,  and  until  1815,  the  sole  English  appreciator  of  Phidias. 
The  subsequent  purchase  of  the  Elgin  Marbles  for  the  British  Museum 
vindicated  his  judgment,  but  did  not  win  back  to  him  the  friends  he 
had  lost  by  this  controversy.  His  pictures  were  generally  great  suc- 
cesses as  exhibition  pieces,  and  for  several  of  them  he  received  very 
high  prices,  but  he  was,  notwithstanding,  alwaj's  involved  in  debt  and 
never  achieved  pecuniary  independence.  His  financial  troubles  ulti- 
mately drove  him  to  suicide,  1846. 

Haydon's  tragic  life  and  fate  wei'e  due  to  a  somewhat  imperious  disposition,  and 
to  an  impatience  of  neglect  or  opposition.  He  placed  a  very  Mgh  estimate  on  his  own 
abilities,  and  in  this  he  was  undoubtedly  right  as  regards  his  powers  as  a  draughts- 
man. Few  men  since  Michael  Angelo  have  possessed  equal  possibilities  as  regards 
mastery  of  the  figure  ;  but  his  accessible  pictures  are  in  other  respects  not  such  as  to 
make  his  failure  in  life  incomprehensible.  His  "Entry  of  Christ  into  Jerusalem" 
is  now  owned  by  the  Cincinnati  Museum  of  Fine  Arts.  It  Avas  for  many  years  in 
Philadelphia.  His  "Resurrection  of  Lazarus"  is  a  large  canvas  in  the  National 
Gallery.  His  best  work  is  said  to  be  the  "Judgment  of  Solomon"  in  the  Ashburton 
Collection. 

David  Wilkie  was  the  son  of  a  Scotch  clergj-man,  and  was  born  at  Cults,  in 
Fifeshire,  in  1785.    At  school  he  used  to  barter  sketches  for  slate-pencils  and  mar- 


MODERK    PAINTING.  ood 

bles,  and  although  his  strong  bent  for  design  was  combatted  by  his  father,  it  led 
to  his  beginning  art  study  in  Edinburgh  in  1799. 

Wilkie  exhibited  his  "Village  Politicians"  at  the  Royal  Academy 
in  London  in  1806,  and  from  this  time  till  his  death  he  enjoyed  a 
career  of  uninterrupted  success.  The  scope  of  his  art  is  well  de- 
scribed by  the  titles  of  his  pictures,  and  we  will  therefore  mention 
a  series,  all  of  which  have  become  famous  through  engravings. 
Such  are  the  "Card  Players,"  "Rent  Day,"  "Blind  Man's  Buff," 
"Reading  the  Will,"  "The  Blind  Fiddler,"  etc.  Wilkie's  forte,  as 
here  indicated,  was  the  study  of  every-day  humble  life,  especially 
from  its  humorous  or  serio-comic  side.  Plis  pictures  are  generally 
crowded  with  figures  of  small  dimensions,  of  which  each  one  is  a 
study  of  character.  His  execution  was  minute  and  conscientious, 
rather  than  powerful,  but  was  not  ill-adapted  to  the  nature  of  his 
subjects.  The  matter  of  his  art  is  well  represented  by  the  engrav- 
ings of  it  which  have  been  so  popular.  He  was  a  student  and  con- 
tinuer  of  the  old  Dutch  and  Flemish  genre-painters,  especially  of 
Teniers  and  Ostade,  but  not  a  wholly  brilliant  rival  of  these  painters 
in  matters  of  execution. 

Wilkie  received  1200  guineas,  in  1820,  from  Lord  Wellington  for  his  j^icture 
of  "The  Chelsea  Pensioners  listening  to  the  News  of  Waterloo."  In  later  life  his 
opportunities  for  foreign  travel,  and  contact  with  the  masterpieces  of  Spanish  and 
Italian  art,  led  to  a  change  of  style,  tending  to  more  ambitious  and  ideal  subjects 
and  broader  methods  of  execution.  The  pviblic  was  not  prepared  for  this  change, 
and  did  not  approve  it,  nor  does  it  appear  that  Wilkie  possessed  the  power  of  exe- 
cution and  thought  which  this  change  should  have  demanded.  There  was,  however, 
no  particular  resulting  detriment  to  his  financial  success  or  general  career.  In  1830 
he  succeeded  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence  in  the  position  of  Painter  in  Ordinary  to  the 
King.  Wilkie  died  at  sea  in  1841  during  his  return  from  an  Oriental  trip.  He 
had  been  a  constant  sufferer  from  ill  health  since  1824. 

FRENCH  PAINTING  — SECOND  QUARTER  OF  THE  19tli  CENTURY. 

During  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th  century  the  productivity  of  the  French  had 
been  great,  especially  in  portraits,  in  battle-scenes,  and  in  historic  compositions. 
We  find  the  names  of  David,  of  Gerard,  and  of  Gericault  of  main  importance  during 
the  period  of  Bonaparte.  Without  denying  the  occasional  power  and  constant  con- 
scientious care  of  the  French  painters  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  century,  we  must 
still  place  Constable  and  Turner  immeasurably  above  them  ;  but  now  the  tide  turned, 
and  France  became  what  England  had  been.  The  direct  influence  of  Constable,  and 
ir  a  less  direct  sense  that  of  Turner,  on  the  rise  of  the  French  School  "  of  1830," 
the  "  Fontainebleau  "  or  "Barbizon"  School,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  a  most  in- 
teresting and  frequently  neglected  fact.  Constable  was  better  understood  at  this 
tiwi  in  France  than  in  England.  His  direct  spiritual  heir  was  the  French  painter 
T'  eodore  Eousseau. 


360  MODERN    PAINTING. 

Rousseau  may  be  considered,  on  the  whole,  as  the  founder  of  the 
most  important  modern  school  in  French  art.  This  was  again  in  large 
degree  a  school  of  landscape.  Its  representatives  generally  made 
their  first  appearance  in  public  about  1830,  whence  the  name  some- 
times applied  to  them  and  above  quoted.  They  were,  however,  not 
considered  as  men  of  mark  until  a  much  later  date,  and  an  official  or 
academic  account  of  French  painting  written  at  the  time  when  their 
best  works  were  being  produced  would  have  entirely  ignored  their 
names.  Beside  Rousseau  stands  a  group  of  painters  among  whom 
we  name  as  especially  prominent :  Michel,  Corot,  Dupre,  Troyon, 
Diaz,  Decamps,  Millet,  and  Monticelli. 

Theodore  Rousseau,  the  son  of  a  tailor,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1812. 
He  first  exhibited  at  the  Salon  of  1831.  His  most  important  early 
teachers  were  the  Old  Masters  of  the  Lou^Te.  He  did  not,  however, 
neglect  nature  for  these  models,  and  in  this  case,  as  in  others,  when 
the  influence  of  the  Old  Masters  on  modern  art  is  cited,  it  will  simply 
appear  that  the  great  artists  of  all  times  see  nature  more  or  less  in  the 
same  way.  Although  Rousseau  traveled  and  painted  in  all  parts  of 
France,  he  had  an  especial  predilection  for  the  Forest  of  Fontainebleau 
near  Paris,  and  lived  in  its  neighborhood  after  1833.  The  artists  asso- 
ciated with  him  are  thus  often  known  as  the  Fontainebleau  School 
or  the  School  of  Barbizon,  the  village  in  which  Rousseau  lived. 

In  1835  the  pictures  which  Rousseau  offei'ed  for  exhibition  at  the  Salon  were 
rejected  by  the  academical  authorities  in  charge,  and  during  the  next  twelve  years  he 
suffered  neglect  and  want,  being  all  this  time  excluded  from  the  Salon  exhibitions. 
The  Revolution  of  1848  changed  the  inanagement  of  the  Salon,  and  Rousseau  became 
a  member  of  its  jury.  In  the  year  of  his  death,  1867,  he  was  president  of  the  jury. 
His  pictures  now  command  enormous  prices,  and  are  largely  owned  in  the  United 
States.  One  of  them  sold  for  $21,000  at  a  New  York  auction  in  1887.  Rousseau's 
strong  point  was  that  of  all  gi-eat  landscape  artists ;  the  abilitj'  to  seize  the  broad 
essential  facts  without  being  led  astray  by  a  minute  rendering  of  minor  details  which 
really  escape  the  eye  in  open-air  vision. 

'^  Jean  Baptiste  Camille  Corot  is  more  wideh^  known  and  more  uni- 
versally popular  than  Rousseau.  He  combines  the  broad  treatment 
of  that  great  landscape  artist  with  a  tender  and  poetic  feeling  and  a 
certain  delicacy  of  rendering  which  have  made  him  more  compre- 
hensible to  the  world  at  large.  On  the  other  hand  his  range  of  subjects 
was  not  wide.  Mist  effects,  or  the  atmosphere  of  earh^  morning  and 
of  tAvilight,  nearly  always  engrossed  his  attention. 

He  was  born  in  Paris,  1790,  and  was  the  son  of  a  clerk.  After  an  elementary 
education  at  Rouen  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  draper  in  Paris  and  did  not  begin  life 


275-     THEODORE  ROUSSEAU.     LANDSCAPE. 
276.    J.  F.  MILLET.     THE  GLEANERS. 


277.    J.  B.  C.  COROT.     LANDSCAPE. 
278.     C.  TROYON.     THE  SHEPHERD'S  DOG. 


MODERN    PAINTING.  363 

as  an  art  student  until  the  age  of  twenty-six.  In  1825  he  visited  Italy  and  Rome, 
where  he  remained  two  years.  He  first  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Salon  in  1827.  He 
reached  the  age  of  seventy  without  attaining  wealth.  Not  till  his  declining  years 
did  he  reap  his  deserved  reward  in  fame  and  money.  He  is  said  to  have  ultimately 
earned  an  annual  income  of  200,000  francs.  The  broad  style  by  which  Corot  is 
now  generally  known  was  not  achieved  till  1840.     He  died  in  1875.     His  paintings 

Jean  Fran9ois  Millet  was  born  of  a  French  peasant  family  in  the 
hamlet  of  Gruchy  near  Greville  in  ISl-i.  He  spent  his  boyhood 
■working  in  the  fields.  His  bent  for  design  was  assisted  only  by  the 
study  of  the  engravings  in  the  illustrated  family  Bible.  His  educa- 
tion was  aided  by  the  village  priest,  who  taught  him  Latin.  Th^ 
boy's  talent  for  drawing  was  recognized  by  his  family  as  a  special 
calling,  and  he  was  committed  to  the  instruction  of  a  painter  at 
Cherbourg  with  their  cooperation.  His  talents  here  shown  procured 
a  small  pension  from  the  municipality  for  his  support  as  a  student 
in  Paris ;  this  was  not,  however,  long  continued.  Millet's  talents  were 
recognized  by  his  Paris  master,  Delaroche,  but  his  wholly  unconven- 
tional style  was  against  him.  He  worked  in  great  poverty,  painting 
portraits  for  two  dollars  apiece,  and  selling  small  copies  of  two 
eighteenth-century  artists,  Watteau  and  Boucher,  whose  art  was  at- 
tractive to  the  public  but  extremely  distasteful  to  him.  After  a  first 
success  as  an  exhibitor  in  1844,  his  pictm-e  of  1845  was  rejected  by 
the  Salon,  His  poverty  at  this  time  was  such  that  he  was  obliged 
to  use  the  rejected  canvas  for  his  next  painting,  and  he  actually 
painted  over  this  rejected  painting  his  "  CEdipus  Unbound."  During 
one  absence  in  Normandy  Millet  was  obliged  to  paint  sign-boards  for 
a  living.  It  is  also  related  that  he  fought  at  the  barricades  in  the 
Paris  revolution  of  1848.  Having  received  $100  for  his  picture  of 
the  "Winnower,"  he  moved  to  Barbizon  in  1849,  and  lived  there  for 
twenty-seven  years  in  a  three-roomed  cottage.  Here  he  was  be- 
friended by  Rousseau,  and  was  buried  beside  him  in  1875. 

Millet's  picture  of  "The  Angelus  "  was  sold  in  Paris  in  1889  for  $116,000.  The 
ultimate  triumph  of  this  painter,  much  greater  since  his  death  than  when  living, 
was  wholly  due  to  his  true  soul  and  simple  honesty.  He  had  known  the  want  and 
the  toil  of  the  peasant,  and  he  painted  what  he  knew.  The  titles  of  his  famous 
pictures  will  best  exhibit  his  bent  in  art  —  "The  Peasant  Grafting  a  Tree,"  "The 
Gleaners,"  "The  Sower,"  "Sheep-shearing,"  "The  Potato-planters,"  "The  Knitting 
Lesson,"  "Bringing  Home  the  New-born  Calf,"  etc.  The  finest  Millets  are  at 
present  generally  to  be  found  in  the  United  States,  and  the  American  loans  at  the 
World's  Fair  in  Chicago  comprised  several  of  the  most  important. 


3G4  MODEKX     I'AIXTIXG. 

Alexandre  Gabriel  Decamps  (1803-1860)  is  another  artist  of  the 
great  group  in  question.  He  was  an  Oriental  traveller,  and  devoted 
much  of  his  art  to  corresponding  subjects.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  study  in  Oriental  life  the  true  background  and  accessories 
of  Biblical  subjects. 

Diaz  de  la  Pen  a  (Narcisse  Virgile)  (1809-1876)  was  of  Spanish 
parentage  and  was  born  at  Bordeaux.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Rousseau. 
At  his  best  he  ranks  with  the  greatest  colorists  of  the  19th  centur}'  {as 
regards  color),  having  a  rival  or  superior  only  in  Monticelli.  Diaz  is 
occasionally  frivolous  or  careless,  and  at  times  somewhat  mechanical, 
but  he  was  strong  both  in  landscape  and  figure  composition.  In  the 
former  class  the  Forest  of  Fontainebleau  usually  furnished  his  sub- 
ject, and  there  is  no  great  variet}'  in  his  choice  of  view.  On  the 
whole  he  takes  a  very  high  place,  but  not  the  first  place,  in  the 
School  of  Fontainebleau. 


We  will  not  attempt  elaborate  accounts  of  Michel,  Troyon,  Dupre,  or  Monticelli. 
Of  all  great  artists  of  the  French  School  the  latter  is  least  known,  and  yet  he  is  one 
of  the  greatest,  when  known  at  his  best.  Dupre  (Jules)  and  Troyon  (1810-1865) 
belong  to  a  class  of  whom  we  feel  that  mercantile  success  has  occasionally  led  to 
self-repetition  or  to  work  which  does  not  equal  their  best.  At  his  best  it  is  difficult 
not  to  place  Troyon  as  high  as  any  cattle-painter  or  landscape  artist  who  ever  lived. 
The  powers  of  Dupre  in  execution  and  in  composition  are  magnificent  when  he  has 
chosen  to  exert  them.  Michel  is  less  known,  but  he  takes  us  back  to  that  atmo- 
sphere of  unselfish  art,  working  for  results  and  not  for  money,  which  seems  to  inspire 
every  canvas  of  Millet,  of  Corot,  and  of  Rousseau.  Among  the  more  or  less  mer- 
cantile imitators  of  the  School  of  1830,  Daubigny  comes  nearest  to  sincerity.  It  is 
doubtful  if  he  has  ever  reached  it. 


Beside  the  Fontainebleau  School  and  its  affiliated  painters,  there 
are  two  other  French  painters  who  deserve  especial  mention  for  the 
period,  closing  soon  after  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century,  Eugene 
Delacroix  and  Couture.  Their  distinction  from  the  painters  just  named 
lies  partly  in  their  choice  of  subjects,  which  were  mainly  historical 
and  ideal  compositions.  They  were  like  them  in  opposing  the  smooth 
finish  and  conventional  characteristics  of  the  academical  artists  of 
that  day.  Delacroix  had  a  romantic  tendency,  instanced  by  his  pas- 
sion for  Byron  and  for  the  tragic  characters  of  Shakespeare.  He  was 
vehement  and  powerful  in  his  nature  and  in  his  art.  In  the  Louvre 
are  his  "  Dante  and  Virgil,"  "  Massacre  of  Scio,"  etc.  Couture's  greatest 
vvork  is  his  "  Romans  of  the  Decadence,"  in  the  Luxembourg  Museum. 


MODERN     PAINTING.  365 


RECENT  FRENCH  PAINTING. 

After  the  death  of  the  great  painters  just  named,  during  or  after 
the  sixties,  we  find  none  of  equal  importance  to  take  their  place. 
French  art  now  moved  in  various  directions,  of  which  three  may  be 
specified  here.  In  one  of  them  we  find  the  name  of  Meissonier 
(Ernest)  as  a  leading  representative.  Minutely  painted,  gayly  colored, 
and  generally  insignificant  subjects  were  his  forte.  Considered  as 
costly  decorations  of  luxurious  apartments  they  certainly  had  their 
place,  but  they  made  no  contribution  to  the  intellectual  wealth  or 
spiritual  force  of  their  time.  In  cases  where  Meissonier  entered  the 
field  of  historic  composition,  as  in  his  "1807,"  now  in  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  of  New  York,  he  departed  from  his  usual  choice  of 
subjects  without  pronounced  success. 

Meissonier  best  represents  that  recent  class  of  French  pictures  which  are  care- 
fully executed  and  well  adapted  to  please  fashionable  taste,  but  which  are  of  such 
frivolous  subject-matter  that  no  very  serious  importance  can  be  given  them. 

A  second  direction  may  be  named  as  that  of  the  correct  Academi- 
cians, careful  in  drawing  and  fairly  serious  in  purpose ;  but  lacking 
in  power,  in  breadth,  and  in  harmonious  color.  In  this  group  we 
may  place  Bonnat,  Cabanel,  Carolus-Duran,  Bouguereau  and  others. 
An  artist  holding  with  the  Academic  School  as  regards  methods  of 
execution,  but  far  outranking  them  in  intellectual  power  and  in  the 
choice  of  significant  and  epoch-making  subjects,  is  Gerome.  Puvis  de 
Chavannes  has  taken  high  rank  as  a  decorator,  but  his  composition 
is  formal  and  his  color  cold. 

We  cannot  overlook  the  name  of  Rosa  Bonheur  in  view  of  the 
fame  of  her  "  Horse  Fair,"  now  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art. 
Excellent  in  drawing  and  splendid  in  composition,  it  lacks  only 
boldness  of  execution  and  color.  Without  detracting  from  the  great- 
ness of  Rosa  Bonheur,  we  must  award  the  palm  to  Troyon  among 
modern  cattle-painters. 

A  third  division  is  that  of  the  Impressionists  (so  called),  a  much- 
abused  and  much-talked-of  group  of  artists,  of  whom  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  speak  collectively.  Among  the  Impressionists  may  be  ranked 
some  of  the  most  talented  draughtsmen  and  most  gifted  painters 
of  our  day.     Such  would  be  Courbet,  Degas,  Manet,  and  Monet. 

As  a  School  it  is,  however,  impossible  to  pass  judgment  upon  them,  and  most 
advisable  to   comment   on    the    individual   artist    or   the    individual    picture.      No 


366  MODERX    PAIXTING. 

methods  are  successful  when  practised  by  unskilful  hands.  All  methods  are  poten- 
tially successful  which  aim  at  representing  serious  thought  or  carefully  studied 
facts.  In  oiir  estimate  of  the  Impressionist  School  we  must  be  careful  to  distin- 
guish theories  of  method  in  technical  execution  from  the  success  of  a  given  artist 
in  using  these  methods,  or  of  a  given  picture  in  representing  them. 


AMERICAN   PAINTING. 

In  the  days  of  the  American  Revolution  and  of  our  early  independence,  the  art 
of  America  was  naturally  an  outgrowth  of  that  of  England.  The  English  eighteenth- 
centiiry  School  had  been  mainly  active  in  portraiture,  a  field  in  painting  which 
has  always  appealed  to  the  practical  taste  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  as  it  appealed  in 
sculpture  to  the  practical  Roman.  Our  earliest  American  painters  of  greatest 
renown  are  also  portrait-painters.  Charles  Wilson  Peale,  Rembrandt  Peale,  and 
Gilbert  Stuart  are  leading  names,  but  the  greatest  name  is  that  of  Copley. 

The  Peales,  father  and  son,  hold,  then-  rank  mainly  by  virtue  of 
the  historic  importance  of  their  sitters.  Of  the  two,  the  son,  Rem- 
brandt, was  undoubtedly  superior  to  his  father ;  but  Charles  Wilson 
Peale's  portraits  of  Washington  will  always  keep  his  name  before 
the  American  public,  and  they  are  by  no  means  wholly  inferior 
works.  This  artist  was  born  in  Maryland,  but  became  a  Philadel- 
phian  by  residence.  He  commanded  a  corps  of  volunteers  in  the 
Revolutionary  War,  and  was  distinguished  for  skill  in  various  me- 
chanical pursuits  and  for  versatility  in  various  professions.  In  early 
life  he  studied  his  art,  during  four  years,  in  England.  He  was  born 
in  1741  and  died  in  1826. 

Rembrandt  Peale  (1787-1860)  also  owes  his  fame  especially  to 
his  portrait  of  Washington,  which  was  purchased  in  1832  by  the 
United  States  Senate. 

The  artist  was  only  eighteen  years  old  when  Washington  sat  for  the  original 
sketch,  and  although  the  picture  was  completed  after  Washington's  death,  with  the 
assistance  of  other  portraits  and  a  bust,  it  is  certainly  superior,  as  a  work  of  art,  to 
the  portraits  done  by  the  father  in  Washington's  life-time.  Several  of  Rembrandt 
Peale's  portraits  are  in  the  Gallery  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society. 

Gilbert  Charles  Stuart  ranks  far  higher  than  the  Peales.  He  was 
born  in  Rhode  Island  in  1756.  As  a  youth,  Stuart  accompanied  a 
Scotch  artist  to  Scotland  and  received  lessons  from  him,  but  returned 
home  after  his  death,  and  was  educated  at  the  Grammar  School  of 
Newport.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  returned  to  Edinburgh,  and  in 
1781  began  a  successful  career  in  London,  where  he  painted  the  por- 
traits of  many  famous  persons.  He  was  also  employed  in  Dublin  and 
in  Paris,  where  he  painted  a  portrait  of  Louis  XVI.    He  returned  to 


MOUEUN     PAINTING.  <"" 

America  in  1793,  and  after  residing  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and 
Washington,  moved  to  Boston  in  1806,  and  died  there  in  1828  Once 
more  it  is  the  portraits  of  Washington  which  have  drawn  most  atten- 
tion to  the  artist.  Of  these,  there  are  said  to  have  been  three  origmal 
paintings  and  twenty-six  copies.  The  finest  is  generally  conceded  to 
be  the  one  owned  by  the  Boston  Athenseum. 

Stuart  was  a  man  o£  much  wit,  and  of  genial  nature,  able  to  draw  his  patrons 
into  conversation,  and  to  make  tl^em  lose  the  selt-oonscionsness  which  people  sitting 
o  their  portraits  are  apt  to  exhibit.  The  ability  to  read  character  must  precede  he 
ability  to  depict  it,  and  it  holds  of  artists  as  it  does  ot  actors  and  novehsts  that  he 
study  of  temperament  and  of  human  nature  is  the  essential  study  of  art.  In  the 
capacity  to  represent  character,  which  is  the  true  test  of  the  portrait-painter,  Stuar 
t"wgh  pLe  tor  his  time,  and  the  highest  place  among  American  painters  next 
to  Copley.    As  a  colorist  he  was  not  Copley's  interior. 

John  Singleton  Copley  was  born  in  Boston  in  17.S7.    He  was  the 
leading  portrait-painter  of  New  England  until  1774.    In  this  year  he 
went  to  Italy  and  remained  there  two  years.    In  1 7  7  6  he  began  living 
in  London,  and  was  joined  there  by  his  wife  and  children,  who  sailed 
from  Boston  on  the  last  New  England  vessel  which  bore  the  British 
flag     He  remained  in  London  until  his  death  in  1 8 1 .!,,  and  was  to  the 
last  in  high  favor  as  a  painter  of  portraits  and  historical  subjects.^    The 
Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  affords  the  best  exhibit  to  be  seen  in  this 
country  of  his  works,  which  are,  however,  widely  scattered  among  the 
descendants  of  the  old  New  England  families.    His  portraits  are  distm- 
guisned  for  their  solidity  of  execution  and  strongly-defined  character. 

Much-quoted  names,  but  of  tar  less  ™P°-^»<=««-°  Stuart  ;nd  ^opley.  are  tlio- 
of  Beniamin  West,  Washington  AUston,  and  Jonathan  Trumbull.  The  lattei  seivea 
t  fn  offll  in  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  and  deserves  mention  as  the  leading  pam  er 
as  an  o™':^ '  ^  important  works  are  in  the  New  Haven  Yale 

Art  Cat^  and  oTI  wal^ot  the  Eotunda  of  the  Washington  Capitol.    Washin,.o„ 
tlls.on(17791843)  spent  much  time  in  England,  and  achieved  distinction    here  a 
tSas   n  MS  owVcouiitry.  but  ha.  higher  standing  as  a  man  oi  r.^^^-^^^^^l"^ 
letters  than  as  a  painter.    As  a  colorist  he  ranks  fairly  well.    One  »"-  ^-'  P  ^I!" 
•    +1.    .<  -Po.ii  Pnrl  ^ilfls  in  Prison"  of  the  St.  Louis  Museum.     His     Propnet  jeienudu, 

is  "Belshazzar's  Feast,"  owned  by  the  Boston  Athen^um.     ^-J^^\"^^^;*J^.;',^, 
1820)  was  a  native  of  Pennsylvania,  who  studied  m  England  aM--^^^^^^  ™^^ 
nf  its  Roval  Academy,  in  which  oflace  he  succeeded  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.    ±iis  wor 
was  L^llt  but  is  Mstorically  interesting  as  that  of  an  early  American  painter. 

The  Secord  Quarter  of  the  nineteenth   century  would  be  almost 
a  blank  in  American  art  were  it  not  for  the  great  name  of  Thomas 


368  MODERN    PAIXTIXG 

Cole.  His  five  pictures  of  the  "  Course  of  Empire,"  now  in  the  col- 
lection of  the  Historical  Society  of  New  York,  are  among  the  greatest 
works  of  the  century.  His  "  Voyage  of  Life,"  in  four  scenes,  is  well 
known  by  engravings,  and  shows  a  tender  and  poetic  spirit. 

Cole  was  bom  in  England  in  1801,  and  was  taken  to  America  as  a  young  child 
His  parents  settled  in  Ohio,  and  he  was  originally  employed  in  a  wall-paper  factory, 
which  was  established  by  his  father.    He  subsequently  studied  in  Philadelphia  and 
New  York,  and  was  able  to  travel  abroad  extensively.     He  was   ultimately  estab- 
lished in  New  York. 

Toward  the  time  of  the  Civil  War  American  landscape  art  had 
begun  to  develop  considerable  activit}^  Its  coloring  was,  however, 
generally  garish,  and  its  execution  rather  mechanical.  Representa- 
tive names  for  this  period  are  Albert  Bierstadt  and  F.  E.  Church, 
Bierstadt's  "Rocky  Mountains"  and  Church's  "Heart  of  the  Andes" 
are  typical  paintings.  Both  are  enormous  canvases  illustrating  the 
artistic  error  of  overcrowding  large  pictures  v/ith  small  details,  but 
valuable  as  panoramas.  Church's  "  Niagara  Falls "  was  another  am- 
bitious picture  which  acquired  great  reputation,  A  more  notable 
artist  was  William  Page,  who  was  born  in  Albany  in  1811,  spent 
many  years  in  Italy,  and  ultimately  settled  in  New  York,  He  ranks 
as  one  of  the  most  serious  and  able  of  all  American  painters. 
Portraits  and  ideal  subjects  were  his  chosen  field. 

Rapid  strides  were  taken  by  American  painters  during  the  seven- 
ties. Study  abroad  became  general.  Exhibitions  began  to  multiply, 
and  buyers  to  grow  more  numerous.  Among  those  who  appeared  at 
this  time  as  Americans  of  marked  genius  we  may  mention  Wm.  M. 
Hunt,  George  Fuller,  Homer  Martin,  Winslow  Homer,  Elihu  Vedder, 
and  John  La  Farge.  Hunt's  influence  was  especially  important  as  trans- 
ferring to  America  the  standards  which  he  had  drawn  in  France  from 
the  teachings  of  Millet  and  Couture.  In  later  life  he  was  head  of  a 
School  of  Art  in  Boston.  George  Puller  was  one  of  the  most  wholly 
original  and  intellectual  painters  that  this  country  has  produced.  He 
passed  many  years  of  his  life  as  a  farm-laborer  in  Massachusetts,  and 
died  before  achieving  recognition.  Homer  Martin  has  been  a  pioneer 
among  the  painters  of  landscape.  Winslow  Homer  is  especially  re- 
markable for  his  virile  and  sturdy  thought,  and  his  wholly  frank  and 
spirited  rendering  of  nature.  He  is  equally  strong  in  figures  and  in 
landscape,  which  is  a  rare  quality  among  American  painters. 

In  recent  years  a  very  important  school  of  American  painters  has 


S(i9 
MODERN    PAINTING. 


developed  from  the  teachings  and  h.fluence  of  ^n.M  chase,  a  na- 
tive of  Indiana,  whose  studio  is  in  New  York.  Another  h.ghly  grfted 
American,  James  M.  Whistler,  has  spent  most  of  h.s  Me  ur  London, 
and  ranks  among  the  first  modern  artists.  The  most  thoroughly  ^ 
cessful  and  famous  of  recent  American  pamters  is  probably  J.  S.  &ai- 
gent  whose  portraits  are  worid-famous,  and  who  has  recently  executed 
a  series  of  very  important  decorations  for  the  Public  Library  building 

"  Tothe  above  names  we  must  add  those  of  Abbott  H.  Thayer,  whose 
"Virgin  Enthroned"  was  an  important  exhibit  at  the  Chicago  Fair, 
and  George  De  Forest  Brush,  whose  fine  picture  of  ancient  Mexican 
life    "The  Sculptor  and  the  King,"  was  seen  at  the  same  exhibit 
Wordsworth  Thompson  and  Frederick  James  are  the  most  successful 
painters  of  Colonial  scenes.    No  mention  of  American  painters  can 
!flord  to  omit  the  names  of  Albert  Ryder,  of  R.  A.  Blakelock,  and  of 
George  Inness.    The  latter,  recently  deceased,  has  a  reputation  m  land- 
scape which  stands  higher  than  that  of  any  other  American  pain  er. 
Magnificent  specimens  of  his  art  maybe  studied  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  New  York.    Walter  Shirlaw  and  Edward  E.  Simmons  have 
been  very  successful  in  figure  compositions  for  architectural  decora- 
tion, as  well  as  in  oil  painting.  ^  .    ,        +„ 
I  have  endeavored  in  this  brief  mention  of  American  pamters  to 
include  only  those  of  pronounced  intellectual  quaUty,  men  who  are 
thinkers  and  students  as  well  as  painters.    There  are,  however,  many 
such  whose  names  have  not  been  mentioned,  and  many  others  whose 
technical  powers  entitle  them  to  high  rank  in  their  profession. 

RECENT  ENGLISH  AET. 

From  our  short  account  o£  American  artists  we  return  to  England  In  order  to 
spealonts  more  recent  painters.  Since  the  days  of  Constable,  Turner,  and  Etty 
re^    en.ha.e.a.        reany^^^^^^^^^^^ 

=rtSrurBtr4s^e,  had  ^'i:;^^:r^^z:rs^ 

human  nature,  following  a  hne  comparable  to  that  of  Dickens  novels. 
Landseer,  were  successful  painters  of  animals. 

Toward  the  middle  of  the  century  (1849)  the  so-called  school  of 
the  Pre-Raphaelites  became  prominent.  Its  leaders  were  Holman 
Hunt  John  MiUais,  and  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti.  These  were  all  quite 
young  men  when  their  association  was  founded.    Hunt  was  nineteen. 


370  MODERN    PAIXTIXG. 

Millais  was  twenty,  and  Rossetti  was  twenty-one.  The  essential  aim  of 
these  young  painters  was  to  strengthen  serious  art,  and  all  of  them, 
especially  Millais,  became  men  of  prominence.  The  name  which  they 
chose  to  attach  to  themselves  has,  however,  no  great  significance.  It 
denoted,  among  other  things,  an  appreciation  for  the  humihty  and 
purity  of  early  Italian  art  on  the  part  of  these  apostles  of  reform.  The 
fact  that  men  who  were  not  painters  became  members  of  this  brother- 
hood is  an  indication  that  the  title  had  no  especial  reference  to  methods 
in  art.  It  is,  however,  true  that  the  want  of  atmosphere  and  of  chiar- 
oscuro which  we  find  in  old  Pre-Raphaelite  painters  did  to  some  extent 
appear  in  the  works  of  their  spiritual  imitators,  and  in  so  far  their 
pictures  can  hardly  be  commended  for  abandoning  an  improvement  of 
technical  method  which  has  been  the  common  property  of  civilization 
since  the  16  th  century. 

Holman  Hunt,  however,  takes  high  rank  as  a  serious  artist.  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti 
never  achieved  the  rank  of  a  wlioUy  successful  professional  painter,  and  is  best 
known  as  a  poet  and  a  man  of  letters.  Some  few  of  his  works,  widely  known  by 
engravings,  show  tender  and  beautiful  ideals.  The  most  famous  man  of  the  group 
is  Sir  John  (Everett)  Millais,  and  it  may  be  added  that  he  is  the  one  who,  in  later 
life,  abandoned  the  technical  methods  alluded  to.  These  methods  may,  in  fact,  be 
considered  utterly  out  of  date  at  present,  and  they  never  had  wide  vogue.  The 
esthetic  and  literary  atmosphere  of  this  school  was  its  really  important  feature. 
Hence  we  may  connect  with  it  some  artists  who  have  widely  departed  from  its 
presumed  technical  methods,  and  who  do  not  strictly  belong  to  it. 

Edward  Burne- Jones  (born  1833)  was  originally  a  pupil  of 
Rossetti.  He  has  become  one  of  the  most  important  representatives 
of  the  imaginative  and  romantic  school  in  recent  English  art.  He 
has  also  done  much  in  designing  for  stained  glass.  Among  these 
designs  are  the  windows  of  Christ  Church  in  Oxford.  Ford  Madox 
Brown  (born  1821)  is  distinguished  for  his  series  of  mural  decora- 
tions for  the  history  of  ^Manchester  in  the  town-hall  of  that  city. 

Sir  Frederick  Leighton,  the  recently  deceased  president  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  was  a  most  successful  artist  in  imaginative  and 
classic  subjects,  a  fine  draughtsman  and  an  able  colorist.  A  wholly 
exceptional  position  is  occupied  by  George  F.  Watts,  whose  greatness 
as  an  allegorist  is  incontestable.  A  very  complete  exhibit  of  his 
works  was  made  at  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New  York  some 
years  since. 

Another  famous  painter,  long  resident  in  England,  is  the  Belgian 
Alma-Tadema.     His  pictures  bring  enormous  prices.     They  are  most 


MODERN    PAIXTING.  371 

carefully  but  rather  coldly  executed,  and  are  generally  devoted  to 
archpeologic  subjects. 

^     MODERN  GERMAN   PAINTING. 

The  history  of  modern  German  painting  begins  with  the  names 
of  Carstens  and  Cornelius.  The  former  was  a  Dane  and  a  native  of 
Sleswick  (1754-1798).  His  works  are  remarkable  for  their  compo- 
sition and  quality  of  balance  in  arrangement.  The  best  collection 
of  them  is  in  the  Museum  of  Weimar.  The  distinction  of  Cornelius 
(1783-1867)  is  that  of  a  mural  painter.  His  frescoes  in  the  Campo 
Santo  of  Berlin  and  in  Munich  are  especially  noteworthy.  The  great- 
est of  modern  German  artists,  all  things  considered,  was  Wilhelm  von 
Kaulbach  (1805-1874),  whose  six  great  frescoes  on  the  walls  of  the 
New  Museum  in  Berlin  are  his  most  celebrated  work. 

In  the  second  quarter  of  the  19th  century  the  town  of  Diissel- 
dorf,  near  Cologne,  became  the  Academic  centre  of  German  art. 
Hence  the  name  of  the  "  Dlisseldorf  School,"  which  had,  however,  no 
really  distinctive  traits  and  did  not  produce  any  especially  note- 
worthy artists.  The  leading  landscape  painters  of  Germany  are  the 
Achenbachs  —  two  brothers  named  Oswald  and  Andreas.  In  genre 
painting  Knaus  and  Meyer  (Yon  Bremen)  are  the  leading  names.  In 
historical  compositions,  and  also  as  an  Academic  teacher,  Carl  von 
Piloty  (182  6-1886)  of  Munich  held  high  rank.  The  greatest  mod- 
ern  German  colorist  was  Hans  Makart  of  Vienna  (1840-1 88-1). 

Of  late  years  the  Scandinavian  painters  have  developed  great 
power,  and  among  these  the  name  of  Zorn  is  most  eminent.  His 
pictures  at  the  Chicago  Fair  attracted  much  attention. 

In  Russian  art  the  works  of  Verestchagin  are  especially  remark- 
able. No  other  modern  painter  has  so  demonstrated  the  didactic 
power  of  art.  His  pictures  of  battlefields  are  the  most  powerful  ser- 
mons which  have  ever  been  preached  on  the  horrors  of  wars,  A  not- 
able Russian  picture  at  the  World's  Fair  in  Chicago  was  the  "Cos- 
sack's Answer  to  the  Sultan  of  Turkey"  by  Repine, 

To  the  foregoing  brief  mentions  we  must  add  the  names  of  Mun- 
kacsy  and  Fortuny.  The  former,  a  Hungarian  by  birth,  made  his 
success  in  Paris.  His  method  is  broad,  but  cannot  be  called  power- 
ful. His  large  picture  of  "  Christ  before  Pilate  "  was  widely  exhibited 
in  the  United  States  some  few  years  since.  A  much  more  distin- 
guished artist  was  the  Spaniard  Fortuny  (1839-1874). 


HISTORY  OF  MUSIC. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

Although  the  arts  of  design  vary  fundamentally  from  that  of  music  in  the  form 
of  expression,  there  are  still  certain  points  of  view  from  which  the  history  of 
all  these  arts  may  be  united  in  study  or  considered  in  association.  The  art  of 
music  is  in  many  ways  the  most  promising  art  of  the  present  and  the  future.  Its 
greatest  masters  have  flourished  in  recent  times.  Its  development  is  of  recent  date 
as  regards  the  perfection  of  its  instruments  and  the  size  of  its  orchestras.  Music 
of  the  highest  classical  quality  has  been  written  within  the  limits  of  the  present 
century.  Hence  the  undeniable  relative  inferiority  of  the  architecture,  the  sculp- 
ture, or  the  painting  of  the  19th  century,  as  compared  with  the  past,  is  offset  and 
made  good  by  its  great  success  in  music.  The  value  of  art  history  is  the  opportu- 
nity it  offers  for  a  broad  philosophy  of  history,  in  which  the  importance  of  each 
epoch  is  accented  and  expressed  by  its  ideal  art.  In  a  proper  presentation  of  such 
a  philosophy  music  must  be  included,  if  recent  modern  times  and  the  19th  century 
are  to  hold  their  own  in  contrast  with  the  past.  Cxluck  may  be  compared  with 
Phidias,  Beethoven  may  be  comjDared  with  Michael  Angelo,  Mozart  may  be  com- 
pared with  Raphael,  and  wiien  the  great  galaxy  of  musical  composers  which  has 
flourished  in  the  last  two  centuries  is  considered,  our  period  may  claim  equality 
with  others  whidi  have  done  greater  work  when  the  arts  of  form  alone  are  con- 
sidered. 

The  ascendency  and  superiority  of  music  in  modern  art  correspond  to  ceitain 
obvious  facts  in  modern  civilization.  Never  has  there  been  a  time  in  history  when 
civilization  was  sj^read  so  widely  over  the  earth's  surface.  Never  has  there  been  a 
time  when  the  size  of  individual  civilized  countries  was  so  large.  Sculpture  and 
painting  appeal  to  comparatively  small  audiences.  Only  in  so  far  as  their  works 
are  individually  accessible  can  they  wield  an  influence.  If  copied  they  lose  much 
of  their  original  power.  The  classic  quality  of  music,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not 
damaged  by  repetition.  The  same  opera,  the  same  symphony,  or  the  same  sonata 
may  be  I'epeated  a  thousand  times,  or  in  a  hundred  places  at  one  time,  without 
loss  of  spontaneous  quality  or  of  original  power.  The  statues  of  Phidias  can  now 
be  seen  only  in  London,  the  Parthenon  can  be  known  only  in  Athens,  the  SiStine 
Madonna  can  be  viewed  only  in  Dresden.  Photographs  and  casts  are  valuable 
references,  but  no  one  considers  them  equal  to  the  originals.  But  the  works  of 
Beethoven  may  exert  to-day  the  same  influence  in  Australia  or  in  India  that  they 
exert  in  Germany.     Mozart  can  be  studied  in  New  York  as  easily  as  in  Vienna 

A  little  thought  will  show  that  in  so  far  as  art  may  be  considered  as  an  ideal 
expression  of  that  which  is  best  and  greatest  in  human  nature,  music  has  possi- 
bilities of  influence  which  can  never  be  claimed  for  architecture,  sculpture,  and 
painting.  It  is,  for  instance,  the  most  universally  refining  of  all  the  arts,  because 
it  is  an  art  which  most  universally  appeals  to  everyday  people  in  advance  of  spe- 


HISTORY    OF    MUSIC.  373 

cial  educational  training.  Special  education  is  certainly  needed  for  the  comprehen- 
sion of  many  masterpieces,  and  yet  the  music  of  the  people  and  the  ballads  of  the 
people  are  everywhere  recognized  as  important  factors  in  culture  and  of  really 
classic  value.  Scotch  ballads,  German  songs,  Irish  melodies,  Hungarian  dances,  and 
last,  but  not  least,  the  airs  of  the  negro  plantation  hands,  have  their  own  place  and 
their  own  importance  beside  Italian  operas  and  classic  symphonies.  Still  farther, 
it  holds  true  that  the  works  of  the  greatest  composers  have  been  largely  based  on 
themes  drawn  from  these  simple  sources. 

The  standards  of  classic  quality  in  musical  art  are  essentially  the  same  as  those 
which  we  apply  to  literature,  to  painting,  or  sculpture.  There  is  music  which  simply 
pleases  the  ear  without  ennobling  results,  just  as  there  are  pictures  which  have  no 
higher  aim  than  to  please  the  eye,  or  books  wliich  leave  us  no  better  than  they 
found  us.  Then  there  is  music  which  teaches  self-denial  and  lofty  purpose,  which 
stirs  the  heart,  and  excites  the  nobler  passions.  As  connected  with  poetry  and  liter- 
ary dramatic  art  in  the  field  of  opera,  music  again  comes  into  play  as  an  accessory 
of  vast  importance.  Music  is  a  rest  for  the  weary  brain,  and  even  for  the  tired  body. 
It  softens  the  heart,  stii's  the  soul,  and  unlocks  pent-up  emotions.  As  the  aid  and 
ally  of  religion  it  figures  in  the  stirring  songs  of  the  Salvation  Army,  in  the  hymns 
of  the  church,  in  the  Masses  of  the  Catholic  ritual.  It  has  led  armies  to  victory, 
and  it  has  led  souls  to  God.  It  has  been  the  stay  of  the  patriot  and  the  solace  of 
the  wandering  beggar.  It  has  thrilled  the  spectators  of  the  Greek  tragedies,  and 
has  been  united  with  many  of  the  greatest  dramas  and  greatest  poems  of  modern 
literature.  If  we  consider  such  works  as  the  overtures  to  Goethe's  "Egmont"  and 
to  Shakespeare's  "Coriolanus"  by  Beethoven,  the  music  of  the  "Midsummer  Night's 
Dream"  by  Mendelssohn,  the  Passion  Music  by  Bach,  the  biblical  oratorios  by 
Handel,  the  histoi'ical  operas  of  Meyerbeer,  the  preludes  and  nocturnes  of  Chopin, 
the  songs  of  Schubert,  and  the  musical  dramas  of  Wagner, —  we  shall  need  no  argu- 
ment to  show  that  the  share  of  music  in  tlie  history  of  modern  art  is  the  weightiest 
and  the  raost  important. 


HISTORICAL   SURVEY. 

That  music  played  an  important  part  in  the  Hfe  and  in  the  edu- 
cational systems  of  the  ancients  we  know  well,  but  we  know  little 
more  than  this.  The  harp,  which  is  the  parent  of  the  modern  piano, 
is  figured  in  an  Egyptian  tomb  at  Thebes  of  the  largest  dimensions 
now  known  to  a  modern  orchestra.  The  lyre,  a  smaller  kind  of 
harp,  is  the  typical  instrument  of  the  Greek  god  Apollo.  Music, 
both  vocal  and  instrumental,  was  used  throughout  the  performances 
of  the  Greek  drama,  which  prefigured  in  many  ways  the  modern 
opera.  The  trumpet  and  the  flute  (double  and  single)  were  well  known 
to  antiquity.  The  organ  can  be  dated  back  at  least  to  Roman  an- 
tiquity, and  the  violin  had  a  primitive  predecessor  among  the  musi- 
cal instruments  of  the  early  Celts. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  hymns  of  the  Russian  church,  as  handed 
down  from  the  Byzantine  (Greek)  Empire,  have  preserved  some  sur- 


374  nisTORY  OF  music. 

viving  traces  of  old  Greek  music.  That  this  music  was  the  greatest 
known  to  antiquit}'  is  generally  conceded ;  also  that  it  passed  with 
other  forms  of  Greek  culture  to  the  Romans,  and  so  became  the  basis 
of  the  early  Christian  science  in  this  art.  But  as  to  the  exact  char- 
acter of  Greek  music  the  most  learned  theorists  are  in  doubt.  That 
it  was  simpler  than  ours  is  certain.  It  was,  of  course,  lacking  in  the 
complex  variety  and  startling  (Effects  which  are  within  the  scope  of 
the  modern  orchestra. 

There  is  a  clearer  knowledge  of  the  music  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
but  as  regards  its  simplicity  and  comparatively  undeveloped  forms, 
the  statement  made  above  again  holds  true.  We  may  most  easily  date 
the  development  of  music  by  the  invention  or  perfection  of  the  mod- 
ern instruments,  and  the  average  dimensions  of  an  orchestra.  The 
violin  was  perfected  in  the  1 7th  and  18th  centuries  by  the  Amatis  and 
Stradivarius  of  Cremona;  the  piano  dates  from  the  early  18th  cen- 
tury, when  it  was  developed  from  the  spinet  and  harpsichord,  which 
in  their  origin  go  back  to  forms  of  the  harp.  In  the  late  18th  century 
the  symphonies  of  Haydn  were  written  for  an  orchestra  of  about 
twenty  performers.  A  symphony  orchestra  now  consists  of  sixty- 
four  musicians.  Organs  of  large  dimensions  were  used  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  but  it  is  not  probable  that  they  had  any  wide  range  of  capacity. 
The  perfected  opera  dates  from  the  times  of  Gluck  (late  18th  cen- 
tury) ;  the  perfected  symphony  and  piano  sonata  date  from  Bee- 
thoven (early  1 9th  century) ;  the  perfected  oratorio  dates  from 
Handel  (18th  century).  All  this  shows  the  comparative^  recent 
development  of  modern  music. 

Church  music,  as  is  natural,  was  the  first  to  reach  perfection. 
The  Masses  of  Palestrina,  which  were  written  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
16th  century,  are  still  considered  the  noblest  models  of  church  music. 
The  history  of  church  music,  before  this  time,  centres  in  the  Flemish 
composers  during  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  and  before  these  dates 
is  rather  vague.  Guido  of  Arezzo,  an  Italian  monk  who  flourished 
in  the  12  th  century,  is  generally  quoted  as  the  inventor  of  the  present 
system  of  musical  notation.  For  a  still  earlier  time,  historians  em- 
phasize the  importance  of  the  solemn  Gregorian  chant,  which  carries 
us  back  to  the  beginnings  of  Christian  history  and  the  connecting  links 
with  that  now  forgotten  music  of  the  Romans  and  the  Greeks. 

For  the  period  of  the  Middle  Ages  we  must  not  forget,  however, 
the  minstrels  of  the  Scotch,  "Welsh,  Irish,  and  English,  the  troubadours 


HISTORY    OF    MUSIC.  375 

of  the  French,  and  the  minnesingers  of  Germany.  The  history  of 
Vocal  part-music  has  its  most  distinct  beginnings  in  the  glees  and 
madrigals  of  the  16th  century  in  England,  which  were,  however,  by 
no  means  the  earliest.  The  beauty  of  these  may  still  be  enjoyed  in 
the  revivals  of  certain  Shakespearian  plays.  The  fugue  was  a  familiar 
form  of  composition  to  the  Flemish  musicians  whom  we  have  just 
cited. 

We  shall  begin  our  biographical  accounts  of  the  composers  with 
Palestrina  —  first  noting  that  the  invention  of  movable  types  for 
printing  music  was  made  in  1502  in  Italy,  and  that  this  invention 
was  of  epoch-making  importance  for  the  development  of  the  art. 

Palestrina  is  named  from  his  birthplace  near  Rome,  and  was  born  in 
1524.  He  became  a  singer  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  at  Rome,  which 
for  centuries  had  the  finest  choir  in  Christendom.  Previous  to  this 
time,  its  singers  had  been  very  largely  drawn  from  Flanders  for  reasons 
just  explained.  During  the  Council  of  Trent,  held  for  the  reform 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  the  question  of  church  music  was  one  of 
the  points  considered,  for  scandal  had  been  caused  by  the  introduction 
of  secular  music  and  words  in  the  singing  of  Mass.  It  was  con- 
sequently proposed  to  abolish  all  music  excepting  the  plain  chant, 
but  decision  was  reserved  subject  to  the  success  of  Palestrina  in 
composing  church  music  which  should  be  deemed  worthy  of  its 
sacred  mission.  Palestrina  submitted  three  Masses  to  the  Commission 
appointed  to  decide  the  question,  and  these  were  unanimously  ap- 
proved. The  most  celebrated  of  all  church  Masses  is  still  Palestrina's 
"Missa  Papse  Marcelli,"  a  Mass  so  named  in  honor  of  the  Pope  Mar- 
cellus.  The  date  of  these  compositions  is  1575.  The  introduction 
of  congregational  singing  in  Protestant  churches  is  another  important 
fact  for  the  1 6th  century,  the  finest  forms  being  the  German  "  chorals." 

In  order  of  time  we  may  next  emphasize  the  production  of  the 
earliest  modern  opera.  This  took  place  at  Florence  about  1600.  The 
composer  was  Jacopo  Peri,  and  his  work  was  entitled  "  Euridice."  The 
accompaniments  were  written  for  four  instruments ;  a  primitive  kind 
of  piano  known  as  a  clavichord,  a  guitar,  a  viol,  and  a  lute.  The  pro- 
duction of  this  work  was  due  to  a  circle  of  students  interested  in 
old  Greek  culture,  and  aiming  to  revive  its  musical  methods.  These 
students  were  among  the  heirs  of  that  Greek  learning  which  had  trav- 
elled to  Italy,  after  the  Turks  had  occupied  the  capital  of  the  Byzan- 
tine  (Greek)   Empire  in    1-158.    It  is  not  clear   that  the  attempted 


376  HISTOUY    OF    MUSIC. 

revival  had  any  direct  analogy  with  the  original  Greek  music,  but  the 
general  resemblances  between  modern  opera  and  the  old  Greek  drama, 
with  its  musical  accompaniment,  are  none  the  less  certain,  and  the 
relations  of  the  two  at  the  very  beginning  of  modern  opera  are  clearly 
established.  This  first  opera  was  mainly  composed  in  recitative,  but  a 
more  elaborately  musical  style  of  opera  was  introduced  by  Monteverde 
of  Venice,  soon  after  1600.  Monteverde  is  considered  the  father  of 
modern  opera.  Only  one  of  his  operas,  "  Orfeo,"  is  now  known  to  print. 
As  a  result  of  his  activity  there  was  built  in  Venice  the  first  public 
theatre  used  for  opera.  This  was  opened  in  163  7.  Before  this  the 
operas  had  been  given  only  as  private  entertainments.  Many  other 
opera-houses  were  rapidly  opened  in  Venice,  and  they  spread  thence 
to  other  Italian  cities,  as  well  as  to  France  and  Germany.  Ope- 
ratic performances  were  not  introduced  into  England  until  the  1 8th 
century,  and  there  they  long  continued  to  be  regarded  as  a  foreign 
exotic.  The  first  theatre  for  the  performance  of  opera  in  Paris  was 
founded  in  16  71.  The  cradle  of  opera  in  Germany  was  the  city  of 
Hamburg. 

The  year  1600  is  the  date  of  the  first  oratorio,  as  well  as  of  the  first 
opera.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Religious  Order  of  the  Orato- 
rians,  founded  at  Rome  by  St.  Philip  Neri.  This  Order  was  so-called 
because  its  members  were  wont  to  stand  outside  their  church  exhort- 
ing the  by-standers  to  come  and  pray  (Latin  orare).  The  oratorio 
was  originally  a  religious  drama,  accompanied  by  music,  and  given 
after  the  church  services  on  a  regular  stage.  This  and  other  musical 
attractions  were  offered  in  order  to  draw  in  an  audience  to  the  services, 
and  sustain  the  interest  in  them.  The  oratorio  was  in  reality  only 
another  form  of  the  Passion  Plays  and  Miracle  Plays  by  which  religious 
instruction  had  been  given  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

To  the  17th  century  also  belong  the  names  of  the  famous  composers 
Alessandro  Scarlatti  and  Pergolesi,  active  at  Naples,  which  was  a  very 
important  centre  of  musical  culture  at  this  time.  The  form  of  the 
violin  concerto^  which  gives  a  leading  part  to  the^ first  violin,  and  uses 
the  other  instruments  as  accompaniment,  was  also  developed  in  the 
later  1 7th  century.  The  use  of  the  term  sonata  also  first  appears  at 
this  time,  and  its  introduction  is  ascribed  to  an  organist  at  Venice, 
Giovanni  Gabrieli. 

From  che  foregoing  account  of  musical  terms,  of  the  inventions  of  musical  in- 
struments, and  of  the  names  of  early  composers,  it  appears  that  Italy  was  the  centre 
from  which  the  art  of  music  spread  in  modern  times.     This  fact  is  in  line  with  the 


HISTORY    OF    MUSIC.  377 

general  influence  of  the  Renaissance.  During  the  17th  century  the  accounts  of 
music  in  north  European  countries  point  generally  to  Italian  influence.  The  great- 
est activity  of  the  art  during  this  century,  outside  of  Italj-,  was  in  France,  and  this 
was  the  northern  country  whose  general  relations  with  Italy  were  most  intimate. 
The  Italian  Cardinal  Mazarin,  who  succeeded  Cardinal  Eichelieu  as  Prime  Minister 
in  the  times  of  Louis  XIV.,  brought  a  company  of  Italian  singers  to  Paris  and 
spent  vast  sums  in  supporting  their  entertainments.  The  entertainment  known  as 
the  Ballet  was  here  developed  in  great  magnificence,  but  the  performers  were 
originally  people  of  distinction  and  not  hired.  The  Ballet  was  originally  a  com- 
bination of  a  Masque,  or  performance  in  which  people  of  quality  appeared  in  alle- 
gorical costumes  and  characters,  with  dance  music  and  movements.  The  still  cele- 
brated gavotte,  known  as  that  of  Louis  XIII. ,  dates  from  one  of  these  performances, 
although  the  music  was  not  composed  by  that  king. 

The  greatest  French  composer  of  the  17th  century  was  an  Italian  by  birth,  who 
was  brought  from  Florence  when  a  boy.  His  name  was  Jean  Baptiste  Lully.  He 
began  life  in  Paris  as  a  scullion,  but  gained  the  favor  of  King  Louis  XIV.  by  his 
performance  on  the  violin.  He  obtained  the  right  to  organize  an  operatic  com- 
pany, composed  many  operas  and  much  church  music,  and  until  his  death  was  the 
master  of  the  world  of  music  in  Paris. 

The  triumph  of  the  Puritans  in  England  during  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth 
was  very  detrimental  to  the  progress  of  music  in  that  country.  The  church  choirs 
were  dispersed  and  the  organs  were  generally  destroyed.  After  the  Restoration  the 
choir  of  Charles  II.  produced  many  fine  voices  and  composers.  Among  these  Henry 
Purcell  ranks  as  one  of  high  distinction  in  modern  times.  He  composed,  for 
instance,  music  for  Shakespeare's  "Tempest"  with  the  still  familiar  songs,  "Come 
unto  these  yellow  sands"  and  "Full  fathom  five." 

In  Gei-many  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618-1648),  and  the  period  of  distress 
which  followed,  were  depressing  influences  for  music  as  well  as  for  other  arts. 
Here  was  developing,  nothwithstanding,  the  greatness  of  the  following  epoch,  when 
the  sceptre  was  to  pass  from  Italy  and  the  whole  world  was  to  acknowledge  that 
German  music  had  become  the  greatest  of  modern  arts.  But  we  again  find  in 
G-ermany  a  historic  continuity  as  regards  development  from  Italian  influence.  This 
appears  in  the  leading  position  taken  by  Vienna  as  a  musical  centre ;  for  this  was 
the  German  city  to  which  Italian  teachers  and  performers  first  naturally  gravitated, 
as  being  of  all  German  cities  the  one  in  closest  local  relations  with  Venice  and  with 
Italy.  Here  (in  Vienna)  flourished  a  court  composer  (1698-1740),  who  is  known  to 
have  travelled  in  Italy.  Although  his  musical  compositions  were  numerous,  few- 
were  published,  but  his  great  work  on  the  theory  of  music  called  "  Gradus  ad  Par- 
nassum"  was  the  authority  of  the  18th  century,  and  the  basis  of  the  studies  of  all 
its  great  composers. 

MUSIC   OF   THE   18TH   CENTURY  IN   GERMANY. 

In  the  same  year,  1(385,  were  born  Johann  Sebastian  Bach  and 
George  Frederic  Handel.  Their  careers  open,  therefore,  soon  after 
1700,  and  begin  the  history  of  18th  century  music. 

Handel  was  born  at  Halle,  the  son  of  a  barber  and  surgeon,  two  professions 
which  were  often  united  in  those  days.  The  father  destined  Handel  for  the  law,  and 
forbade  the  study  of  music.     The  child  studied  m.usic  in  secret,  and  practised  on  an  old 


378  HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

cla^-ichord  in  the  garret,  where  he  could  be  out  of  hearing.  His  father  had  occasion 
to  ^'isit  a  certain  German  nobleman,  and  having  declined  to  take  his  son  with  him, 
the  latter,  who  was  then  a  boy  of  seven,  ran  after  the  carriage  on  foot  for  such  a 
distance  that  his  father  finally  relented.  The  cause  of  this  persistence,  unknown  to 
the  father,  was  the  child's  desire  to  play  on  the  Duke's  organ.  On  the  next  Sunday 
he  obtained  access  to  the  instrument,  and  was  caught  playing  on  it.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  his  career  as  a  musician.  Instead  of  the  paternal  punishment,  about  to 
be  visited  on  him,  he  received  the  commendation  of  the  Duke,  who  declared  him  to  be 
a  genius,  and  induced  his  father  to  place  no  farther  obstacles  in  the  way  of  his  musical 
studies. 

Handel  began  his  career  in  1703  as  a  second  violinist  in  the  or- 
chestra of  the  Hamburg  Opera.  After  composing  several  operas  he 
visited  Italy  in  1707,  and  spent  three  years  in  Florence,  Rome,  and 
Venice.  He  was  warmly  received  and  highly  appreciated  in  Italy. 
He  next  obtained  the  position  of  Choral  Director  to  the  Elector  of 
Hanover,  but  with  the  permission  to  visit  England,  which  he  imme- 
diately did  in  1710.  From  this  time  on  most  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
England.  His  long  absences  from  his  post  in  Hanover  estranged  him 
from  the  Elector,  and  when  the  latter  became  King  of  England,  as 
George  I.,  Handel's  jDosition  at  the  English  court  seemed  to  be  en- 
dangered. But  he  Avas  able  to  make  his  peace  by  the  composition  of 
some  music  for  a  Royal  fete  and  water  party.  Down  to  1720  Handel's 
work  was  mainly  that  of  an  operatic  composer  and  manager.  The 
many  operas  thus  produced  have  been  supplanted  by  later  works, 
and  are  now  almost  forgotten,  bi^t  as  a  composer  of  oratorios  Handel 
still  leads  the  world,  and  his  productions  of  this  class  are  as  popular 
to-day  as  when  they  first  excited  the  enthusiastic  plaudits  of  an 
English  public.  Among  these  oratorios  may  be  mentioned  "The 
Messiah,"  "Israel  in  Egypt,"  "Saul"  (which  contains  the  famous 
"  Dead  March  "),  and  "  Samson."    Handel  died  in  1 7  5  9. 

xt  was  a  remarkable  fatality  which  led  Handel  to  England  as  a  musician  holding 
office  undt-r  the  House  of  Hanover,  which  itself  subsequently  succeeded  to  the  English 
throne.  The  favor  and  support  of  the  English  court  were  his  through  life.  Handel 
thus  became  in  music  the  connecting  link  between  Germany  and  England,  and  has 
exercised  a  vast  influence  on  the  later  history  of  English  music.  His  personal  charac- 
ter was  choleric  but  lovable,  and  many  curious  stories  are  told  of  his  petulance,  and 
also  of  his  amiability. 

Johann  Sebastian  Bach  died  nine  years  before  Handel  (1750).  He 
was  born  at  Eisenach,  in  Thuringia,  and  belonged  to  a  family  whose 
members  had  been  musicians  for  several  preceding  generations.  His 
favorite  instrument  was  the   organ.    He  occupied  positions  succes- 


HISTORY    OF    MUSIC.  •  379 

sively  at  Weimar,  at  Ooethen,  and  at  Leipzig.  Being,  in  his  capacity 
of  organist,  a  director  of  church  choirs,  he  wrote  much  church  music. 
His  "  Passion  Music  "  belongs  to  a  type  which  was  in  general  use  in 
Germany  for  the  services  of  Holy  Week.  It  still  ranks  as  the  grandest 
of  all  religious  music.  The  later  pianoforte  sonata  has  developed  from 
the  suites,  or  compositions,  with  a  series  of  movements,  which  he 
wrote  for  various  instruments,  hut  especially  for  the  harpsichord  (the 
predecessor  of  the  piano).  These  suites  were  originally  combinations 
of  dance  tunes  of  different  measures.  The  sons  of  Johann  Sebastian 
were  all  eminent  musicians,  and  one  of  them,  Carl  Philip  Emanuel, 
ranks  as  the  predecessor,  in  pianoforte  compositions,  of  Haydn  and 
Mozart. 

In  order  of  time  we  must,  however,  emphasize  the  importance 
of  Gluck,  the  first  and  among  the  greatest  of  all  operatic  composers 
whose  works  still  hold  the  modern  stage.  Christopher  Willibald 
Gluck  was  born  in  Bohemia  in  171-i.  As  an  Austrian  subject  he 
made  his  way  to  the  Austrian  capital,  Vienna,  and  thence  to  Milan, 
where  he  completed  his  musical  education.  The  operas  which  he 
composed  here  secured  him  an  invitation  to  London.  He  next 
dsited  Paris,  and  then  returned  to  Vienna.  In  1762  he  brought 
out  his  immortal  opera  of  "Orfeo"  (Orpheus).  This  was  followed  in 
1772  by  "Iphigenia  in  Aulis,"  which  was  first  produced  in  Paris, 
through  the  favor  of  the  Queen  of  France,  the  Austrian  Marie  An- 
toinette. Gluck  died  in  Vienna  in  178  7,  having  spent  most  of  his 
life  after  1772  in  Paris.  His  "Iphigenia  in  Tauris  "  is  another  opera 
which  still  holds  the  modern  stage. 


The  astounding  wealth  of  melody  in  the  "Orpheus"  is  such  that,  to  one  who 
hears  it  for  the  first  time,  it  almost  seems  as  though  all  later  music  had  been  drawn 
from  it.  The  overture  to  "Iphigenia  in  Aulis"  is  still  considered  one  of  the  best 
of  operatic  overtui'es.  To  fully  appreciate  the  greatness  of  G^uck  we  must,  however, 
have  some  knowledge  of  the  general  conditions  of  operatic  composition  in  his  own 
day.  We  have  seen  that  Italy  was  the  birthplace  of  the  opera,  but  during  the  18th 
century  the  Italian  operatic  style  had  fallen  more  and  more  into  artificial  and  con- 
ventional trammels.  The  development  and  display  of  the  voice  of  the  singer  had 
become  the  test  of  success  in  writing  opera.  The  operatic  singers  had  become  the 
despots  and  lords  of  the  composers,  dictating  their  style  of  music,  and  frequently 
refusing  to  sing  any  song  which  did  not  suit  them.  The  habit  of  composing  music 
to  display  the  gifts  of  individual  singers  was,  of  course,  fatal  to  true  music ;  for  no 
art  can  maintain  its  greatness  when  technique  and  mechanical  execution  are  con- 
sidered more  important  than  meaning  and  inspiration. 

The  story  told  of  Handel  is  doubtless  true,  that  he  once  seized  and  was  about 
to  throw  out  of  the  window  an  Italian  prima-donna  who  had  refused  to  sing  one  of 


380  HISTORY     OK    .Ml   SIC.         * 

his  songs  because  she  conceived  that  it  did  not  display  her  voice  to  advantage. 
Tiiis  stoiy  illustrates  the  tyranny  to  which  all  composers  had  been  subjected.  It 
was  the  greatness  of  Gluck  to  abandon  absolutely  all  the  tricks  and  decorations  of 
vocal  gymnastics  which  had  thus  become  the  ruling  fashion.  In  other  words,  he 
wrote  music  for  music's  sake,  and  not  for  the  sake  of  personal  display.  But  there 
was  still  another  conventional  weakness  in  the  ruling  stjde  of  Italian  opera.  Its 
choice  and  development  of  plot  and  story  were  hampered  by  a  rigid  system  of 
musical  conventions  as  to  the  number  and  style  of  arias,  duos,  and  trios  to  be  sung. 
This  system  had  also  developed  from  the  habit  of  making  concessions  to  the  singers, 
and  of  avoiding  that  jealousy  of  one  or  the  other  of  them  which  might  result  from 
an  unequal  distribution  of  the  opportunity  to  make  a  display  before  the  audience. 
As  a  consequence  once  more  of  this  conventional  system  of  arranging  operas,  the 
story  or  libretto  had  grown  to  be  a  matter  of  complete  indifference.  Gluck  set  his 
face  against  this  system  by  insisting  on  the  value  of  the  libretto,  and  the  necessity 
of  having  an  intrinsic  worth  in  the  subject-matter  of  the  opera.  But  to  all  this 
common  sense  of  theory  and  justice  of  reason,  we  must  add  that  he  was  a  composer 
of  melody  whose  only  rivals  have  been  Mozart  and  Schubert. 


"We  may  venture  to  break  with  the  strict  sequence  of  time,  ac- 
cording to  which  Haydn's  name  should  next  appear,  in  order  to 
place  in  immediate  connection  with  Gluck  his  great  successor  and 
rival  in  operatic  composition,  Mozart  (Johann  Chrysostom  Wolfgang 
Amadous).  His  father  was  a  professional  musician  in  the  employ 
of  the  Prince- Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  where  the  composer  was  born 
in  1756.  The  precocious  ability  of  yoimg  Mozp.rt  is  still  the  won- 
der of  the  world.  He  was  a  performer  qnthe  harpsichord  at  the  9? 
of  three,  and  a  composer  at  five  years  of  age.  At  the  age  of  &^ .  ^.- 
he  was  taken  by  his  father  on  a  starring  tour  through  Europe  as  a 
performer  on  the  harpsichord  and  violin.  His  first  published  work, 
four  sonatas  for  violin  and  harpsichord,  appeared  in  Paris  at  this 
age.  This  tour  had  lasted  five  years  when  Mozart  wrote  his  first 
opera,  at  the  age  of  twelve.  The  tour  was  subsequently  continued 
in  Italy,  the  same  phenomenal  success  being  met  with  everywhere. 
In  spite  of  this  success,  the  finances  of  the  Mozart  family  ulti- 
mately became  straitened.  A  new  Prince- Archbishop  of  Salzburg 
succeeded  in  1772.  He  treated  the  young  composer,  Avho  held  the 
place  of  music-master  in  his  service,  with  great  unkindness  and 
neglect  A  new  position  was  therefore  sought,  but  could  not  im- 
mediately be  obtained.  Having  moved  to  Vienna,  Mozart  made  a 
precarious  living  by  teaching  juusic,  and  w^as  best  known  there  as  a 
pianist.  His  early  operas  were  highly  successful,  artistically  speak- 
ing, but  did  not  relieve  him  from  want.  He  married  in  1782— hap- 
pily -as    regards    association,   but    unhappily  as  regards   matters    of 


HISTORY    OF    MUSIC.  381 

domestic  eco.ioray,  and  died  in  1791,  aged  thirty-six.  His  three  im- 
mortal operas  are  "Don  Giovanni"  (or "Don  Juan"),  the  "Marriage  of 
Pigaro,"  and  the  "Magic  Flute."  Tliese  still  hold  the  stage  as  unex- 
celled masterpieces. 

Three  or  four  other  operas  have  great  excellence  but  are  now  rarely  performed. 
Several  of  Mozart's  symphonies  have  high  reputation,  especially  the  "Jupiter"  sym- 
phony ;  but  the  supreme  master  of  the  symphony  was  Ludwig  von  Beethoven,  who 
was  twenty-one  years  old  when  Mozart  died.  We  must,  however,  before  speaking 
of  the  greatest  of  orchestral  symphony  composers,  go  back  to  Haydn,  the  father 
of  the  symphony,  who  in  time  preceded  both  Mozart  and  Beethoven,  but  outlived 
the  former  eighteen  years,  although  born  twenty-four  years  before  him. 

Franz  Joseph  Haydn  (1732-1809)  was  born  at  Rohrau,  on  the 
borders  of  Austria  and  Hungary.  His  father  was  a  wheelwright.  As 
a  boy  Haydn  was  a  chorister  in  Vienna,  and  he  subsequently  entered 
the  service  of  a  famous  Italian  singing-master  (Porpora)  as  accom- 
panist. He  first  made  a  reputation  as  a  composer  of  string  quartettes 
for  first  and  second  violin,  viola  and  cello,  and  so  obtained  the  direc- 
tion of  a  small  orchestra  in  the  service  of  an  Austrian  Count.  From 
this  employment  he  passed  to  the  service  of  Prince  Paul  Anton  Es- 
terhazy,  whose  death,  however,  soon  followed.  Under  the  Prince's 
successor,  Prince  ISTicolaus,  he  became  sole  director  of  his  orchestra, 
spending  his  time  partly  in  Vienna  and  partly  at  the  summer  resi- 
dence of  the  Pri::ce.  Thirty  years  of  Haydn's  life  were  passed  in 
'"■•^  service  of  the  EsterhLzys,  and  this  entire  period  was  one  of  un- 
interrupted activity  in  iiiusical  composition.  He  subsequently  made 
two  visits  to  London.  During  these  visits,  and  for  English  produc- 
tion, he  wrote  the  twelve  symphonies  which  are  considered  by  some 
his  most  important  works  —  the  Salainon  set,  so  called  from  the 
name  of  the  violinist  and  manager  who  induced  him  to  come  to 
London.  "The  Creation,"  an  oratorio  composed  for  production  in 
England,  is  still  second  in  popularity  only  to  Handel's  "Messiah." 
The  French  bombardment  and  occupation  of  Vienna  in  1809  are 
thought  to  have  hastened  his  death,  which  occurred  at  that  time. 

The  character  of  Haydn's  music  corresponds  to  the  peaceful  and  serene  tenor  of 
his  life.  Without  great  climaxes  or  strong  dramatic  power,  it  is  a  wholly  simple  and 
wholly  classic  flow  of  melodious  measures.  His  art  prepared  the  way  for  the  still 
more  beautiful  works  of  Mozart  and  the  still  sublimer  style  of  Beethoven. 

GERMAN   MUSIC   IN  THE   19TH   CENTURY. 

Ludwig  von  Beethoven  was  born  at  Bonn  in  1770.  His  father  was 
a  singer  in  the  choir  of  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  whose  residence 


382  HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

was  at  Bonn.  The  boy's  education  in  music  was  pushed,  by  the  father, 
who  hoped  to  profit  by  his  precocious  talents.  At  the  age  of  twelve, 
Beethoven  was  harpsichord  player  in  the  orchestra  of  the  Opera.  At 
the  age  of  seventeen  he  was  enabled  to  visit  Vienna  and  to  make  the 
acquaintance  of  Mozart.  In  1792  he  made  another  visit  to  Vienna  in 
order  to  study  under  Haydn.  His  connection  wdth  this  master  was  not 
of  long  duration,  but  after  this  time  Vienna  w^as  his  place  of  residence. 
His  first  compositions  show  very  close  relation  to  those  of  Haydn  and 
Mozart,  but  they  subsequently  develop  an  originality  of  massive  and 
overwhelming  power.  Among  his  early  works  are  the  first  and  second 
symphonies,  the  sonata  "  Pathetique  "  and  the  "Moonlight"  sonata. 
The  third  symphony  (dating  1804),  called  the  "  Eroica  "  (the  Hero  sym- 
phony), w^as  w^ritten  to  celebrate  the  greatness  of  Bonaparte,  for  wiiom 
Beethoven  had  a  passionate  admiration  ;  but  the  coronation  of  Bona- 
parte as  Emperor  shattered  his  idol,  for  Beethoven  was  a  republican,  and 
the  dedication  to  Bonaparte  was  abandoned.  There  are  nine  of  the  sym- 
phonies in  all.  These  are  generally  known  by  their  numbers,  which 
specify  the  order  of  production.  All  of  them  are  sublime  masterpieces. 
The  ninth  symphony  has  as  a  finale  a  choral  setting  of  Schiller's 
"Hymn  to  Joy." 


Beethoven's  life  was  embittered  by  deafness,  which  grew  on  him  rapidly  after 
1801.  The  calamity  was  not  only  a  bitter  trial  to  him  as  a  musician,  but  he  felt  his 
resulting  isolation  in  society  deeply,  and  has  recorded  his  suffering  in  words  that 
show  a  breaking  heart.  In  matters  of  worldly  welfare  he  was  not  subjected  to  the 
tortures  of  pecuniary  want,  but  his  life  was  one  of  continued  domestic  discomfort,  and 
also  of  domestic  loneliness.  Changes  of  lodgings  and  servants  were  a  constant  source 
of  petty  annoyance,  and  another  cause  of  unhappiness  was  the  ungrateful  behavior 
of  a  scapegrace  nephew  to  whom  the  composer  devoted  his  thoughts  and  all  his 
savings.  "When  these  life  trials  are  made  known  lo  us,  the  whole  significance  of 
Beethoven's  music  begins  to  dawn  upon  us  —  it  is  the  music  of  self-conquest,  of  sublime 
resignation,  of  the  triumph  of  the  spirit  over  matter.  It  could  have  been  written  only 
by  a  man  of  very  great  intellect  and  of  a  very  pure  soul,  but  it  is  also  the  music  of 
strength  and  power  and  vigor.  There  is  a  creative  Titanic  quality  in  Beethoven 
which  can  be  compared  only  with  that  of  Shakespeare.  Beethoven's  death  took  place 
in  1827.  In  his  last  hours  his  thoughts  were  still  devoted  to  his  unworthy  nei)hew, 
and  to  him  were  left  all  his  savings.  This  musician's  greatness  was  that  of  an  instru- 
mental composer  for  the  piano  and  the  string  quartette,  as  well  as  for  the  orchestra. 
His  sole  opera,  "  Fidelio,"  has  never  been  popular.  This  is  due  partly  to  the  lack  of 
dramatic  interest  in  the  libretto ;  the  music  is  of  great  beauty,  but  belongs  rather  to 
the  sphere  of  symphony  than  that  of  opera. 

The  history  of  instrumental  music  in  Germany  after  the  death  of  Beethoven 
centres  especially  in  Mendelssohn,  Schubert,  and  Schumann. 


HISTORY     OF    MUSIC.  383 

Felix  Mendelssohn  Bartholdy  was  a  Hebrew,  born  in  Hamburg  in 
1809.  His  family  was  well-to-do,  and  of  wide  literary  culture.  His 
early  life  was  spent  mainly  in  Berlin.  Here  he  developed  precocious 
talents  as  a  musician  and  composer  which  were  stimulated  and  en- 
couraged in  every  possible  way.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  visited 
London  and  then  travelled  in  Italy.  He  subsequently  settled  as 
Musical  Director  in  Dlisseldorf,  but  in  1835  became  Conductor  of 
the  famous  Gewandhaus  concerts  in  Leipzig.  In  1841  Frederick 
William  IV.,  the  Prussian  king,  invited  Mendelssohn  to  Berlin  with 
appointment  of  Musical  Director  in  a  new  Academy  of  Art.  The 
position  proved  uncongenial,  and  the  result  was  a  partial  return  to 
the  work  in  Leipzig  without  abandoning  that  in  Berlin.  The  found- 
ing of  the  famous  Leipzig  Conservatory  was  due  to  Mendelssohn, 
who  persuaded  the  king  of  Saxony  to  apply  a  legacy  which  had 
been  left  the  town  of  Leipzig  to  this  purpose.  The  death  of  the 
composer  occurred  in  1847,  and  seems  to  have  been  hastened  by  his 
grief  at  the  sudden  decease  of  his  gifted  and  favorite  sister. 

Mendelssohn  made,  in  all,  ten  visits  to  England,  where  he  was 
much  appreciated,  and  many  of  his  works  were  composed  during  or 
for  these  English  visits.  Since  his  death  his  reputation  in  England 
has  continued  to  hold  its  own.  His  music  is  generally  admitted  to' 
be  that  of  a  most  refined  and  cultivated  nature,  with  wide  know- 
ledge of  harmony  and  of  technical  problems.  It  is  as  a  composer 
for  the  piano  that  he  ranks  best ;  for  instance,  in  the  famous  "  Songs 
without  Words."  His  symphonies  are  classic  compositions,  without 
rising  to  the  heights  of  his  great  forerunners.  His  most  ambitious 
works,  the  music  to  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  and  the  oratorios 
*'St.  Paul"  and  "Elijah,"  still  enjoy  great  popularity,  especially  in 
England  and  the  United  States.  Mendelssohn's  music  is  generally 
that  of  a  highly  refined,  but  not  of  a  powerful  personality.  It  has, 
however,  undoubted  original  value,  and  it  is  music. 

The  "Scotch"'  symphony  is  the  most  popular.  The  "Fingal's 
Cave"  overture  and  the  overture  to  "  Ruy  Bias"  are  great  works. 

The  instrumental  compositions  of  Robert  Schumann  (1810-1856) 
are  of  a  somewhat  dreamy  and  introspective  character,  not  very  defi- 
nite in  form,  or  strong  in  their  organism.   They  may  be  regarded  as  the 
fireveries  of  a  man  of  genius,  and  so  regarded  they  must  take  high  rank. 


Schumann  was  born  in  Saxony  in  1810.     He  studied  law  in  Leipzig  and  Heidel- 
berg, but  drifted  gradually  into  musical  composition,  after  so  injuring  one  of  his 


iJ84  HISTORY    OF     MUSIC. 

fingers  that  he  could  not  aspire  to  success  on  the  piano  in  the  way  of  public  perform- 
auce,  which  had  been  his  ambition.  He  also  founded  a  journal  in  Ijeipzig  for  musical 
criticism,  and  contributed  to  it  many  notable  articles.  He  was  for  a  short  time  a 
Professor  in  the  new  Leipzig  Conservatory  founded  by  Mendelssohn  (1843),  but  was 
too  shy  for  success  in  this  capacity.  Overwork  also  produced  nervous  exhaustion. 
Hence  a  removal  to  Dresden  for  rest  and  seclusion.  He  remained  here  till  1850,  and 
then  took  a  position  as  musical  conductor  in  Diisseldorf.  He  failed  in  this  capacity^ 
and  his  mind  gave  way.  His  madness  took  the  shape  of  a  delusion  that  he  beard 
constantly  a  particular  musical  note,  and  that  the  spirits  of  Mendelssohn  and  Schu- 
bert were  about  him.  He  died  in  an  asylum  in  1856.  Schumann  attempted  all  fields 
of  musical  composition,  and  succeeded  in  all  excepting  opex'a.  His  piano  compositions, 
symphonies,  string  quartets,  quintets,  and  especially  his  songs,  are  his  best  works. 

Next  to  and  after  Beethoven  the  greatest  musical  geniuses  of  Germany  in  the  19th 
century  have  been  Carl  Maria  von  Weber  and  Franz  Schubert.  In  order  of  time 
Meyerbeer  follows,  and  to  his  appearance  succeeds  that  of  Eichard  AVagner. 

Carl  Maria  von  Weber  was  born  in  1786.  His  father  had  been  a  soldier  and 
courtier  in  the  train  of  the  Elector  of  the  Palatinate,  at  whose  court  he  was  a  famous 
musical  amateur.  Late  in  life  the  father  undertook  to  recruit  his  fortunes  by  man- 
aging a  travelling  operatic  company.  The  son  thus  grew  up  in  contact  with  the  ma- 
chinery and  life  of  the  stage.  He  wrote  an  opera  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  became 
a  pianist  of  renown.  After  many  changes  of  position  and  residence  Weber  was  made 
Director  of  the  Opera  in  Prague  (1813),  and  he  subsequently^  occupied  a  similar  po- 
sition in  Dresden. 

Weber's  world-renowned  opera,  "  Der  Freischiitz,"  was  first  pro- 
duced in  Berlin  in  1821.  It  had  an  instantaneous  and  wide-spread 
success,  and  has  ever  since  ranked  as  the  greatest  of  romantic  operas. 
This  was  followed  by  the  production  of  "  Euryanthe "  at  Vienna ; 
the  libretto  was  less  successful,  but  the  music  not  less  beautiful. 
"Oberon"  was  produced  in  London  in  1826,  under  the  personal  di- 
rection of  the  composer,  who  was,  at  the  time,  in  the  last  stages  of 
consumption,  and  died  immediately  afterward.  He  had  been  crippled 
at  birth  by  hip  disease,  and  was  an  invalid  through  life.  Weber's 
nature  was  as  refined,  as  imaginative,  and  as  lovable  as  his  music. 
His  "  Invitation  to  the  Waltz "  is  a  well-known  piano  composition, 
brilliant  and  sparkling,  but  also  tender  and  pathetic.  The  wide  range 
and  subtlety  of  Weber's  perceptions  in  art  suggest  a  comparison  with 
the  qualities  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  all  these  great  qualities  cul- 
minated in  the  romance  of  "  Der  Freischiitz." 

Giacomo  Meyerbeer  (179-4-1864),  the  greatest  of  all  composers 
of  opera  on  historic  subjects,  was  five  years  the  junior  of  Weber, 
whose  romantic  tendencies  he  continued,  and  whose  acquaintance  he 
had  enjoyed.  It  is  somewhat  suggestive  of  this  composer's  char- 
acter that  his  real  name  was  Jacob  Meyer  Beer,  but  Giacomo  Meyer- 
beer was  a  more  romantic  and  a  more  euphonious  name,  which  he 


OQK 

HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


.1  orinr^TPrl  There  is  no  doubt  that  there  is  an  element 
•'riT.  rhaps  evt  o^  t  nsel,  occasionally  to  be  found  in  Meyer- 
W?s  work  He  oved  effect,  Ind  popularity,  and  success,  crashmg 
beers  ^"k.Jl'^  '"J  ^^^  situations,  fine  ballets,  and  gorgeous 

:~^  trthLtrin  He  lived  to  attain;  but  Ire  atso  .ad  an 

imalative  insight  into  the  forces  and  vast  mazes  of  history.    In 
magmative  ins  g  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  p^^^^^^  ^^^^  ,„„,^<, 

t:  rf     the  Nor'    ns  in  Sicily.    "  L'Africaine  "  represents  the  whole 
:  -o'SVe  Maritime  ^^^f ^.J  ^  ^e  "fth^lTeaTa"  71 

rL:L:S."C/nr^P- ".r;  m  the  t..  century. 

i::^eerU-P<.ver,a^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

^^ersirThatlrr  t:Ses  of  a  Parisian  public  demanded 

H^rre  :=of  rXe^Ttre-rp -t  s  ^ni 

wielded  all  the  vast  machinery  of  that  stage  at  will. 

Meyerbeer  wa.  bom  in  Bertin  In  1794  (or  1701  n^    He  w,.  *e  -n  o,  a  neb  ^^^^^^ 
isb  banker,  and  l^a. 'hroughouUi  e  lul  oon,™a^^^^^^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^^^ 

ana  became  a  great  pianist.    His  niusical  ea  ^^^  ^,ber.    He  then 

and  was  completed  in  Darmstadt  under  ten^^^^^^^  ^^^_^^^  ^„  ^^^  pl,„„. 

appeared  in  Vienna  as  an  »?«''"'= J^"^^^^;  *f„^,y.  ^^re  he  won  great  fame: 
His  iirst  success  in  wntmg  °I»J-  J^^^'  "^  J  i"  t£  to„,e  subsequently  achieved 
but  the  worlcs  tliere  produced  are  """.'"^SOtte  Parisian  success  dates 

in  Paris,  where  he  lived  from  1826  '"  h-^-fn  1831  He  lo  wrote  lighter  operas 
,.o,n  the  appearance  of  "Robert    eDb       11^^^^^^  ^^^  ..^,^^_^„^  ^„ 

for   the    Opera    Comique    ot    t'aris      amuug 

'^^^^•"  ^  ^  ^    wi  7Q7  1 S2S^  carries  us  once  more  to  Vienna,  where  his 

The  life  of  Fran.  Schuben  (179,-1828)  car™    t  ^^  ^  .^  ^^^  j_^^^^^ 

father  was  a  sclioolmaster.    He  had  a  «>™  ™ice  „    compose  at  an  early  age. 

choir.  He  had  no  regular  musical  ^^^^^^.'^'^UeT^";  ^^Lr  schoolboy,  when 
His  great  embarrassment  for  ™^=  ^P^;^;;  X7„y  Jut  in  the  choir  ended  with 
his  own  pocket-money  was  exhausted     After  h«  ™p    y  ^^^^  ^.^^  ^^ 

the  change  of  voice,  he  became  an  assistant  m  h,s  father  s  schoo 
one  of  scanty  means  and  small  encouragement.    He  died  at  the  age 

Schuberfs  first  song  was  published  when  he  was  twent,--for.n 
This  was  the  now  famous  "Erlkonig,"  ™-f "^^f  Jf/^.f  ^^ter 
eighteen,  which  was  brought  out  by  the  assistance  of  "  f - 
refusal  by  a  publisher.  Some  other  songs  were  also  ?"<'''''/ 
subrription  with  fair  success,  and  it  began  to  appear  that  theie 
was  a  market  for  them.  From  this  time  he  spent  his  life  in  working 
for  his  publisher  as  a  song-writer,  for  such  small  remuneration  that 


38G  HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 

the  highest  income  he  ever  reached  was  $500  a  yeai.  Only  after 
his  death  did  the  world  realize  his  true  greatness.  His  now  famous 
symphonies,  string  quartets,  etc.,  had,  at  the  time  of  his  death,  never 
been  given  either  in  public  or  in  jjrivate.  Schubert  is  now  known 
as  the  greatest  song-writer  who  ever  lived.  He  wrote  over  600  songs, 
and  many  of  them,  like  the  "Serenade,"  " Haidenroeslein,"  the  "Muel- 
lerlieder,"  "  Winterreise,"  and  the  "  Swan  Songs,"  are  still  universal 
favorites. 

Without  dwelling  on  the  names  of  other  great  Germans  like  Spohr  (opera  of 
"Jessonda")  Nicolai,  ("The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor"),  Flotow  ("Martha"),  Franz 
Lachner  (fine  orchestral  works),  Katf  (symphony  "  Im  Walde,"  etc.),  Robert  Franz 
(the  successor  of  Schubert  and  Schumann  in  the  realm  of  song),  and  Johannes 
Brahms,  who  is  considered  by  many  to  be  the  greatest  living  composer,  we  come 
now  to  the  epoch-making  name  of  Richard  AVagner. 

Richard  Wagner  was  born  at  Leipzig  in  1813,  and  was  the  son  of  a  clerk  in  a 
police  court.  His  father  died  in  the  year  of  his  birth,  and  his  mother  soon  remarried 
an  artist  and  actor  named  Geyer.  A  removal  to  Dresden  resulted.  Young  Wagner's 
early  tastes  were  literary.  He  studied  the  piano,  but  never  succeeded  in  mastering 
this  instrument.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  wrote  a  tragedy  for  which  he  conceived 
a  musical  accompaniment  to  be  necessary ;  hence  he  began  to  study  composition. 
His  studies  in  music  were  continued  at  Leipzig,  and  were  devoted  especially  to 
Beethoven.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  became  chorus-master  in  the  theatre  at 
Wiirzburg,  on  a  very  small  salary.  After  various  wanderings  and  struggles  (Mag- 
deburg, Konigsberg,  Riga,  London),  Wagner  made  his  way  to  Paris  and  lived  there 
from  1839  to  1842  without  securing  anj-  sort  of  I'ecognition  or  foot-hold. 

Wagner's  first  success  was  his  opera  of  "Rienzi,"  which  was  pro- 
duced at  Dresden  in  1842.  He  left  Paris  to  superintend  the  per- 
formance of  this  opera.  It  was  written  in  Meyerbeer's  style,  and 
does  not  represent  the  later  tendencies  of  the  composer.  These  began 
to  appear  in  the  "Flying  Dutchman,"  a  marvellous  piece  of  imagin- 
ative music,  which  was  brought  out  at  Dresden  in  1843.  "Tann- 
hauser"  followed  in  1845.  In  1849  Wagner  was-  involved  in  the 
revolutionary  troubles  which  then  afflicted  Dresden,  and  was  obliged 
to  take  refuge  in  Paris  and  ultimately  in  Zurich,  where  he  lived  for 
several  years.  It  now  happened  that  Wagner  was  passing  through 
Weimar  on  an  occasion  when  Liszt,  who  was  condactor  of  the  Court 
theatre,  was  producing  "  Tannhauser."  This  led  to  the  revival  of 
ian  acquaintance  first  begun  m  Paris,  and  to  a  close  friendship  be. 
tween  the  two.  Thus  was  brought  about,  under  Liszt^s  encourage- 
ment, the  completion  and  j^roduction  of  "Lohengrin"  (1850).  Work 
on  the  "Ring  of  the  Nibelungon"  was  now  undertaken  in  Zurich. 


HISTORY    OF    MUSIC.  387 

The  scope  of  this  work,  which  consists  of  four  separate  operas  in- 
tended for  performance  on  consecutive  days,  seemed  destined  to 
prove  fatal  to  a  public  production.  But  the  publication  of  the  poem 
of  the  libretto  attracted  the  attention  of  the  King  of  Bavaria,  who 
invited  Wagner  to  Munich,  gave  him  a  pension  and  a  residence,  and 
engaged  him  to  complete  the  "  Ring  of  the  Nibelungen."  The  king's 
enthusiasm  created  an  opposition  to  the  composer,  which  obliged 
him  to  leave  Munich,  but  the  pension  was  increased,  and  the  royal 
favor  was  continued.  A  special  theatre  was  completed  at  Baireuth 
in  18  76  for  the  performance  of  this  work,  consisting  of  four  operas 
—  "Das  Rheingold,"  "Die  Walkiire,"  "Siegfried,"  and  "Gotterdam- 
merung."  Meantime  "Tristan  and  Isolde"  and  the  " Meistersinger " 
had  been  produced.  The  last  of  Wagner's  operas  was  "Parsifal," 
which  was  brought  out  in  1882.  The  composer  died  in  1883  at 
Venice,  and  was  buried  at  Baireuth. 


The  standing  and  quality  of  "Wagner's  art  are  still  u  subject  of  contention.  His 
theory  of  opera  was  to  make  the  subject-matter,  as  developed  by  the  hbretto,  the 
main  feature.  All  music  was  destined  to  support  and  express  the  meaning  of  the 
text.  The  theory  was  impregnable,  and  makes  it  difficult  to  understand  the  number 
of  "Wagner  concerts  in  which  the  music  is  given  without  the  text  —  for  which  incon- 
sistency the  author  of  the  music  is,  of  course,  in  no  wise  responsible.  In  spite  of 
brilliant  exceptions,  "Wagner's  music  is  generally  wanting  in  conventional  melody, 
but  it  always  faithfully  interprets  his  idea.  His  power,  versatility,  and  mastery  of 
instrumentation  are  beyond  cavil.  "What  is  needed  for  comprehension  of  this  master's 
work  is  strict  attention  to  his  literary  idea  and  literary  method.  There  is  no  other 
case  known  to  the  history  of  opera  in  which  the  composer  has  been  himself  able  to 
create  his  subject-matter  and  cast  it  into  literary  and  poetic  form.  "Wagner's  ad- 
miration for  the  great  masters  who  preceded  him  was  passionate  and  sincere,  espe- 
cially for  Gluck,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven.  In  so  far  as  some  of  his  supporters  have 
tended  to  ignore  these  masters,  their-  influence  is  not  to  be  commended. 

The  name  of  Liszt  has  been  mentioned  as  that  of  Wagner's  great  friend  and 
supporter.  Franz  Liszt  (1811-1886)  was  a  Hungarian  by  birth,  who  studied  in 
Paris,  and  became  one  of  the  greatest  pianoforte  players  of  our  time.  In  an  age  when 
the  piano  is  so  popular,  and  when  critics  and  appreciators  are  so  numerous,  it  is 
not  difficult  to  understand  the  adulation  and  worship  which  were  lavished  on  one  of 
the  most  successful  masters  of  the  instrument.  After  an  extraordinary  success  in 
Paris,  Liszt  became  conductor  of  the  Court  Theatre  in  "Weimar.  He  resigned  this 
position  in  1859,  and  subsequently  distributed  his  time  between  "Weimar,  Pesth,  and 
Rome.  In  later  lite  he  became  a  priest,  but  without  abandoning  his  musical  career, 
and  is  known  as  the  AhU  Liszt.  His  compositions,  especially  those  for  the  piano,  are 
noted  for  their  daring  harmonization,  and  their  difficult  "bravura"  embellishments 
which  tax  to  the  utmost  the  technique  of  the  pianist,  but  which  are  in  great  favor 
with  virtuosos  who  use  them  in  order  to  give  a  brilliant  conclusion  to  their  pro- 
grammes.    His  personal  character  was  of  marked  nobility. 


388  HISTORY    OF    MUSIC. 


MODERN   ITALIAN   OPERA. 

We  have  given  due  weight  to  the  precedence  and  greatness  of  Germany  in  modern 
music.  In  songs  and  in  oi'chestral  compositions  there  is  scarcely  a  sliow  of  successful 
rivalry  by  other  nations,  but  in  the  field  of  opera  both  France  and  Italy  have  done 
great  work.  Little  of  it  will,  however,  bear  comparison  with  the  opera  of  Germany. 
The  ai'tificiality  into  which  Italian  opera  had  fallen  in  the  18th  century,  and  its 
causes,  have  been  explained  in  our  account  of  Gluck.  From  this  condition  of 
decadence  it  again  rose  to  gi'eatness  in  the  19th  century  with  the  names  of  Che- 
rubini,  Rossini,  Donizetti,  Bellini,  and  Verdi.  Paisiello  (1741-1815)  and  Cimarosa 
(1754  ?-1801)  were,  however,  notable  18th-century  composers.  Boccherini  (1740-1805) 
takes  high  rank  as  a  composer  of  instrumental  chamber  music.  He  was  a  resident 
of  Madrid. 

Cherubini  (1760-1842)  was  a  native  of  Florence,  but  finally  re- 
sided at  Paris.  His  great  surviving  opera  is  "Les  deux  Journees" 
(otherwise  named  in  Germany  the  "Water-Carrier" — "  Der  Wasser- 
trager"),  a  rarely  simple  and  classic  work.  He  stands  (with  Boccherini) 
nearest  of  all  Italians  to  the  classic  style  of  German  music. 

Gioachino  Rossini  (1792-1868)  was  born  at  Pesaro,  and  studied 
music  in  Bologna.  The  "  Barber  of  Seville "  is  his  world-renowned 
work,  full  of  movement,  vitality,  and  good  music.  "Serairamide" 
was  produced  in  1823.  The  first  act  is  one  of  colossal  power;  the 
second  act  is  weaker.  After  this  production  Rossini  visited  England 
with  brilliant  success,  and  then  settled  in  Paris,  where  he  became 
Director  of  the  Italian  Opera.  Here  he  wrote  "William  Tell"  (182  9), 
of  which  the  famous  overture  is  the  best  feature. 

Rossini's  character  was  pleasure-loving  and  jovial ;  he  was  not  fond  of  work, 
and  after  writing  this  opera  preferred  to  rest  on  his  laurels  for  the  remainder  of  his> 
life.    In  church  music  he,  however,  subsequently,  w^rote  his  famous  "  Stabat  Mater." 

Gaetano  Donizetti  (1798-18-1:8)  was  born  at  Bergamo.  The  fa- 
miliar titles  of  "Lucrezia  Borgia,"  "Lucia  di  Lammermoor,'"  "La  Fa- 
vorita,"  "  La  Figlia  del  Reggimento,"  "  Linda  da  Chamounix,"  and 
**Don  Pasquale"  all  belong  to  his  creations. 

Donizetti's  music  is  light,  but  catching  and  vigorous.  The  frequency  of  repetition 
which  these  operas  liave  enjoyed  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  not  especially  serious, 
either  as  regards  music  or  libretto,  or  as  regards  connection  between  the  two.  In 
80  far  as  some  fashionable  people  have  felt  bound  to  attend  the  opera,  without  very 
much  caring  to  do  so,  Donizetti  has  not  been  too  taxing  to  their  patience.  For  peo- 
ple who  go  to  the  opera  because  they  are  ashamed  to  stay  away,  Donizetti  is  a 
good  programme.  Schumann  characterizes  his  "Lucia"  as  " Puppenmusik "  (puppet- 
show  music). 


HISTORY     OF    MUSIC.  389 

Vincenzc  Bellini  (1802-1835)  was  a  native  of  Sicily.  He  wrote 
"Norma,"  "I  Puritani,"  and  " La  Sonnambula,"  all  of  them  sonorous 
and  meritorious  works.  Bellini  shows  gravity  and  capacity  for  climax 
in  his  methods  of  composition,  together  with  the  melodious  quality 
which  is  the  charm  of  all  the  Italian  operas. 

Giuseppe  Verdi  was  born  in  1814.  He  is  the  composer  of  the 
familiar  works,  "Ernani,"  "II  Trovatore,"  "Rigoletto,"  "La  Traviata," 
and  lately  the  more  serious  operas  "  Aida,"  "  Otello,"  and  "  Falstaff." 

The  most  recent  success  of  the  Italian  opera  is  the  "Cavalleria 
Rusticana"  of  Mascagni,  which  has  found  wide  appreciation  in 
America. 

MODERN  MUSIC  IN  FRANCE  AND  ENGLAND. 

Fran9ois  Frederic  Chopin  (1809-184:9)  was  born  in  Poland,  but  being  the  son  of  a 
French  father  and  having  spent  his  art  life  in  France,  his  name  may  be  entered  here. 
From  the  age  of  nineteen  this  famous  pianist  was  generally  a  resident  of  Paris.  His 
delicate  health  and  tender  nature  unfitted  him  for  public  appearance,  but  in  private 
circles  he  became  the  idol  of  all  who  knew  him.  As  a  composer  for  the  piano,  Chopin 
wrote  down  what  he  was  himself  —  heart-weary,  pleading,  romantic,  tender,  and  deli- 
cate compositions.  He  cannot  be  called  capricious,  but  his  compositions  are  full  of 
moods  and  changes  of  mood.  Chopin  has,  in  a  word,  written  down  the  music  of  life's 
emotion,  as  felt  by  a  highly  nervous  and  delicate  organism.  He  is  considered  by 
many  as  the  greatest  master  of  pianoforte  composition,  and  his  works  appear  in  the 
programmes  of  every  "  virtuoso." 

The  leader  in  modern  French  opera  is  Auber  (1782-1871),  a  disciple  of  Cherubini, 
and  author  of  the  "  Mute  of  Portici "  or  '*  Masaniello  "  (the  name  generally  adopted  in 
England).  Beside  this  great  and  serious  work,  he  is  known  for  his  "  Fra  Diavolo  "  and 
other  light  operas. 

Charles  Francis  Gounod  was  bom  in  1818.  His  "  Faust "  was  produced  in  1859. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  deservedly  popular  of  recent  operas. 

Bizet  (1838-1875)  born  at  Paris,  is  famous  for  his  "Carmen,"  which  was  brought 
out  in  1875.  Massenet,  Thomas  and  Saint-Saens  are  recent  composers  of  distinction. 
One  of  the  greatest  French  composers  was  Hector  Berlioz  (1803-1869).  In  the  recent 
light  operas  and  comic  operas  of  France  there  is  much  that  is  tuneful  and  charming. 
Planquette's  "Chimes  of  Normandy"  may  be  quoted  as  an  illustration.  Adam's 
"Postilion  de  Longjumeau,"  of  earlier  date,  is  almost  a  classic. 

In  the  field  of  light  opera  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan  has  made  a  name  vdth  "  Pinatore," 
"The  Pirates  of  Penzance,"  "Patience,"  "  lolanthe,"  "The  Gondoliers,"  "The  Mi- 
kado," etc.  The  high  literary  quality  of  the  librettos  of  these  operas,  as  furnished  by 
Mr.  John  Gilbert,  has  not  always  been  appreciated,  and  it  can  be  fairly  said  that  the 
music  of  Sullivan  is  worthy  of  these  clever  librettos.  Balfe's  "  Bohemian  Girl"  (1843) 
and  Wallace's  "Maritana"  (1845)  are  earlier  operas  of  very  light  quality,  which  have 
had  a  certain  kind  of  popularity.  Sir  Wilham  Sterndale  Bennett  (1816-1875)  was  the 
greatest  of  modem  English  composers.  He  was  proffered  in  1853  the  appointment 
of  Conductor  of  the  Gewandhaus  Concerts  at  Leipzig.  Orchestral  composition  was 
his  specialty. 


INDEX  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  MATTER. 


Where  more  than  one  page  reference  is  given,  the  fir>if  reference  is  that  for  pronvncia/ionx  and  dejlnltlonf,^ 
whensiipplkdbij  Ike  text.  Reference  nximhers  for  illustrated  subjects  reftr  to  the  page,  not  to  thi  niwiber  of  the 
illustration. 


Abacus,  33,  60. 

AcUeubacIis,  The,  371. 

Acroteria,  61. 

Adam,  operatic  composer,  389. 

^giua  Maible-s,  143,   145  (ill.). 

^Sis.  1"0. 

Aisles,  86  95. 

Albaiii  Villa,  Collection  of,  128. 

Al(liibrau(liiii  Weddinsr,  229. 

Alexandrine,  Art  and  Period,  57;  Aicliitectiire,  57; 

Sculpture,  169. 
Alleirri,  .Antonu).    See  Correggio. 
Allston,  367. 
Alnia-Tadrma,  370. 
Amazon  type,  Sisuificance,  151;  of  Polycletus,  156, 

160  (ill.)  ;  wlien  created,  161. 
Ampliitlieaters,  Roman,  72. 
AuKcl.  by  Michael  Angelo,  204. 
Annunciation,  by  Carlo  Dolce,  303,  310  (ill.). 
Antinoiis  type.  181.  187  (ill.). 
Ai)lir()dite.     See  Venus  and,  152. 

Apollo  and  Dajiline.  Group,  b.v  Bernini,  213  (ill.),  215. 
Al)ollo  Belvi'dtre,  148,  151,  152;  Kepetitions  of,  152; 

Period,  170;  Correct  Restoration,  170,  173  (ill.). 
Ai)olloniu.s  of  Athens,  178. 
Apollo  type,  .Signiticance,  151. 
Apollo  with  the  Lizard,  152,  161,  168  (ill.). 
Apoxyomenus,  by  Ly.sii)pus,  170. 
Apse,  86,  96. 

Aqueducts,  Roman,  67  (ill.),  71. 
Arch,  in  Chaldea  and  As.syria,  38  ;  Etru.«ican  use  of, 

71;    Roman  use  of,  71;    in  (Jreece.  71,  82  ;  Pointed, 

102. 
Architectuie,  relations  to  the  study  of  art,  1,  2  ;  liis- 

toric  st3'les   in  modern  nse,  5 ;    Eg.vptian,    29-42 ; 

Chaldean,  37;   Assyrian,  37,   38;    Ancient  CJreek, 

43-64;  Alexandrine,  57;  Roman,  05  80;  of  the  Mid- 

rtle  Ases.  81-110;  Byzantine,  81-92;    Early  Chris- 

tian,  81-92;  Romanesque,  92-101;  Gothic,  101-110; 

Renaissance,  117-126. 
Architrave,  9,  61 ;  Doric  .ind  loinc  distinguished,  61. 
Arch  of  Constantine,  75. 
Arch  of  Titus,  75,  122   (ill.);  Reliefs  from,  181,  183 

(ill.). 
Ariadne,  by  Dannecker,  216,  218  (ill.). 
Ariadne  Head,  -so-called,  162. 
Artemis.    See  Diana  and,  152. 
Assos  reliefs,  143. 
Assumptions  of  the  Madonna,  308. 
Athene.    See  Minerva  and,  152. 
Auber,  3S9. 
Aurora,  by  Guido,  299  (ill.),  303. 


BACCHUS  type.  Significance,  151  ;  Greek  designation, 

152;  when  orifrinated,  102,  166  (ill.). 
Bach,  John  .Sebastian,  377,  378,  379. 
Balfe,  389. 

Baptisteries,  82,  90,91. 
Barbieri.  See  Guercino. 
Ba.se,  6,  33,  59. 

Basilica  of  Constantine,  70  (ill.),  72. 
Basilicas,  Roman,  72;  Roman  jilan  copied  by  Christian 

chuiches,  72  ;  Christian,  82-92  ;  History  of  the  word, 

85. 
Bathing  Soldiers,  Cartoon  of,  278. 
Baths,  Roman.  62,  80;  of  Caracalla,  67  (ill.),  76 
Battle  of  the  .stamlaid,  258,  260  (ill.). 
Beethoven,  381,  382. 
Bellini,  389. 
Bellini,  Gentil'j,  289. 

Jiellini,  Giovanni,  25.3,  288  (ill.),  289,  291  (ill.). 
Bell  Tower,  90. 

Belvedere  Apollo.    See  Apollo. 
Belvedere  ToTso.    See  Hercules. 
Bennelt,  Sir  William  Sterndale,  389. 
Berliiiz,  389. 
Bernini,  213  (ill.),  215. 
Bierstadt,  368. 
Bizet,  389. 
Blakelock,  369. 
Boccheriui,  388. 
Bonheur,  Rosa,  365. 
Bonnat,  365. 

Borirhese  Villa  Collection,  128. 
Botticelli.  250. 
Botiguereau,  365. 
Boxer,  The,  178. 
Brahms,  386. 
Brancacci  Chapel,  249. 
Brouwer,  328. 
Brown,  Fold  Madox,  370. 
Bru.sh,  G.  DeF.,  369. 
Buiiie-.Icuu'S,  370. 
Butlre.ss,  6,  106:  Flying,  106. 
Byzantine  architecture.    See  Architecture. 
Byzantine  mosaics.    See  Mosaics. 
Byzantine  sculpture.    See  Sculpture. 
Byzantine  style  in  Russia,  92. 
Byzantine,  word  defined,  82 ;  period,  91. 


Cahaxki.,  365. 
Caliari.    See  Veronest 
Callot,  247. 
Campanile,  90. 


INDEX. 


391 


Cauipo  Santo,  Pisa,  195,  242. 

Caualetto,  290,  351. 

Cauova,  130,  148,  215,  216,  217  (111.),  218  (ill.). 

Capella  Spagnnoli,  242. 

Capital,  6,  33,  60. 

Capitals—  Byzantine,  Eomanesque,  Gothic,  113-116 

(ill.). 
Captives,  by  Micliael  Angelo,  209,  211  (ill.). 
Caiacci,  The,  298. 
Caravaggio,  304. 
Carolus-Duran,  365. 
Carpaccio,  288  (ill.),  289. 
Oarpeaux,  216. 
Carsteus,  371. 
Caryatids,  52. 
Casino,  New  York,  27. 
Cathedral  of  New  York,  3,  4  (ill.). 
Cellini,  210,  212  (ill.). 
Chaldean  architecture.    See  Architecture 
Chaldean  sculpture.    See  Sculpture. 
Chase,  Wm.  M.,  369. 
Cherubini.  388. 
Chiar-oscuro,  282,  327. 
Choir,  86,  95. 
Chopin,  389. 
Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  56  (ill.),  58 ;  Beliefs 

of,  147. 
Clirist  and  the  Widow  of  Nain,  by  Palma  Vecchio, 

295  (ill.). 
Chryselephantine  statues,  44,  155. 
Church,  F.  E.,  368. 
Cimabue,  238. 
City  Hall,  Boston,  11  (ill.). 
Classical  Orders,  6  (ill.),  47-64. 
Claude  Lorraine,  346  (ill. ),  347. 
Clerestory,  36. 
Cole,  368. 

Colleoni,  Statue  of,  205  (ill.). 
Cologne  Cathedral,  109. 
Colonnade,  Greek,  33,  44-47. 
Colosseum,  72. 
Column,  Greek;    details    of    the   shaft,    59;   distin- 

gui.slied  from  piers,  89. 
Composite  Order,  47,  76. 
Constable,  353,  357,  359. 
Copley,  351,  367. 
Corinthian  Order,  6  (ill.) ;  identical  with   Ionic,  47, 

57;   History  of,  57;   Details  of,  59;  in  Roman  use, 

76;  in  Renaissance  use,  118;  Relation  to  Alexan. 

drine  sculpture,  169. 
Cornelius,  371. 
Cornice,  9,  10;  Egyptian,  33;   Greek,  62;   Roman. 

esque,  96. 
Corot,  360. 

Correggio,  283,  285  (ill.),  286  (ill.). 
Courbet,  365. 
Course  of  Masonry,  26. 
Couture,  364. 
Cranach,  322,  326  (ill.). 
Cresilas,  156. 
Criticism  of  architecture  distinct  from  questions  of 

style,  22. 
Crocket,  108  (ill.). 

Cnpid  and  Psyche,  by  Canova,  218  (ill.). 
Cupid,  by  Micliael  Angelo,  204. 
Cupid    tj'pe.    Significance,    151;    Greek  designation, 

153  ;  when  originated,  161,  166  (ill.). 
Curves,  Greek  horizontal,  61. 
Cm-ves  of  the  Greek  shaft,  59. 
Cuyp.  328. 


Danxeckeu,  216,  218  (ill.). 

Daubigu}',  364. 

David,  by  Michael  Angelo,  204,  206  (iU.). 

Da  Vinci,  257,  259  (ill.),  260  (ill.). 

Dawn,  The,  by  Michael  Angelo,  207  (ill.),  209. 

Day,  The,  by  Michael  Angelo,  207  (ill.),  209. 

Decamps,  364. 

Decorative  Art  Movement,  27,  125. 

Degas,  365. 

De  Heeni,  335. 

Delacroix,  304. 

Del  Piombo,  284. 

Del  Sarto,  284,  287  (ill.). 

Deudcrah,  32,  (ill.). 

Denner.  351. 

Descent  from  the  Cross,  by  Van  Der  Weiden,  319  (ill.) ; 

by  Rubens,  336. 
Desiderio  da  Settignano,  204. 
Diadumenus,  by  Polycletus,  156. 
Diana  of  Versailles,  170,  171  (ill.),  173  (iU.). 
Diana  type.  Significance,  151 ;  Greek  designation,  152, 

173  (ill.). 
Diaz  de  la  Pena,  364. 
Dionysus.    See  Bacchus  and,  152. 
Disk-thrower,  156,  160  (ill.). 
Dolce,  Carlo,  303  (ills.).,  309,  310. 
Domenichino,  298,  302  (ill.),  303. 
Domes,  Roman,  80 ;  Byzantine,  90-92 ;  Romanesque 

use,  95. 
Donatello,  202  (ill.),  203. 
Donizetti,  388. 
Doric  Order,  6  (ill.) ;  Egj'ptian,  33,  41  (ill.) ;  History 

of,  47  ;  compared  with  Ionic,  59  ;  Roman  iise,  76. 
Dorypliorus,  by  Polj'cletus,  156. 
Dupre,  364. 

Diirer,  321,  323  (ill.),  324  (ill.). 
Dutch  School,  327. 
Dying  Gladiator,  so-called,  152,  170,  176  (ill.). 

Eastl.\kr  style,  27,  125. 

Ecce  Homo,  by  Guido,  300  (iU.). 

Ecce  Homo  type,  308. 

Echinus,  61. 

Edfou  Temple,  31  (ill.). 

Egg  and  Dart  Molding,  64. 

Elgin  Marbles  (pronounced  el'ghin),  144,  145  (ill.), 
146  (ill.),  151. 

Elizabethan  style,  121. 

Elwell,  216. 

Endymion,  Sleeping,  by  Guercino,  309  (ill.). 

Engaged  Columns,  10,  117,  122. 

English  School,  351. 

Entablature,  broken  lines  in  Renaissance  style  ex- 
plained, 10 ;  Origin  of  the  double  beam  line,  30  ;  Do- 
tails,  61,  62  ;  Roman  modification,  75,  117. 

Entasis,  59. 

Ephesus,  Temple  of,  51. 

Erechtheium,  52,  53  (ill.). 

Eros.    See  Cupid  and,  152. 

Etty,  357. 

Facade,  109. 

Farnese  Bull  Group,  177,  179  (il'.) ;  Hercules,  170. 

Farnese  Collection,  128. 

Faun,  Barberini,  162  ;  of  the  Borghese  Villa,  162. 

Faun,  Marble,  151, 162,  168  (ill.). 

Faun,  type,  151,  162,  168  (ill.). 

Finial,  6,  108  (ill.). 

Flemish  School,  315-336. 

Florence  Cathedral,  116  (ill.). 


•393 


INDEX 


Florence,  School  or,  254. 

Flotow,  386. 

Flutiiigs,  Coliimuar,  60. 

Fortuuy,  371. 

Poiiiin  of  Xei'Mi,  75. 

Fni  .Mificlico,  245. 

Fnuiz,  386. 

Fresco,  238. 

Frescoes,  Sistine  Chapel,  279  (ill.),  280  (ilL). 

Frescoe.s,  Vatican,  267  (ill.),  268  (ill.),  271  (ill.). 

Fret,  Greek,  64. 

Prieze,  6,  9,  61,  62. 

Fuller,  George,  368. 

Fyt,  335. 

Cables,  9,  62 ;  Roman  ornamental  use,  75, 117. 

Gaiu.shorough,  350  (ill.),  351. 

Geroine,  365. 

Ghiberli,  198  (ill.),  203. 

■Ghirlaiulajo,  250,  255  (ill.). 

•Gibson,  216. 

Giorgione,  289,  291  (ill.). 

Giotto.  177-184  (ill.s.),  196,  238. 

Giovanni  Pisano,  196. 

Girard  College,  7  (ill.). 

Gluck,  379. 

Gothic,  Modern,  5-18;  Medieval,  101-110;  Englissh, 

105,  109  ;  Modern  Italian,  21;  Italian,  109. 
Goiijon,  210. 
Gounod,  389. 
Gozzoli,  249,  251  (ill.). 
Greek  ornament.  Structural  meaning,  15. 
Greek  Revival,  14,  129. 
Greek  style  in  modern  architecture,  6-17. 
Greuze,  349  (ill.),  351. 
Guardi,  290,  351. 
Guatanialata,  Statue  of,  202  (ill.). 
Guercino,  298,  303,  305  (ill.),  306  (ill.),  309  (ill.). 
Guido  of  Arezzo,  374. 
Guido  Reni.    See  Eeni. 
Guttii',  62. 


Halicaknassus,  Reliefs  from,  147. 

Hal.s,  328. 

Han. lei,  377,  379. 

Handkcichief  of  St.  Veronica,  308. 

Haydn,  381. 

Hay  don,  358. 

Heliodorus,  hy  Raphael.  268  (ill.). 

Hera.    See  Juno  and.  152. 

Hercules,  Farnese,  170,  172  (ill.);  Belvedere  Torso, 

178;  Canova's  Treatment,  216. 
Hercules  type,  Signilicance,  151. 
Hermes,  See  Mercurji  and,  152. 
Historic  styles  in  modern  architecture,  15-28. 
Hohhema,  328. 

Holbein,  Hans,  the  Younger,  322,  325  (ill.). 
Homer,  AVinslow,  368. 
Hunt,  Holman,  369,  370. 
Hunt,  Wm.  JI.,  368. 


IMMACL'LATE  CONCEPTION,  type,  308;  by  Murillo,  344 
(ill.). 

Imprea.sionists,  365. 

Incendio,  del  Borgo,  by  Raphael,  271  (ill.). 

Inness,  George,  369. 

Ionic  Order,  6  (ill.);  history,  48-51;  details,  59;  Ro- 
man, 76 ;  origin  of  capital,  61. 

Italian  Gothic,  See  Octhic. 


James,  Frederick,  369. 

J.ihii  of  Rologna,  203.  210,  212  (ill.). 

Joniaens,  336,  338  (ill.). 

Juilith,  by  Cranach,  326  (ill.). 

Juno  Ludovisi,  156,  159  (ill.). 

Juno  type,  .Sigiiilicance,  151 ;  Greek  designation.  15% 

159  (ill.);   when  originated,  161. 
Jupiter  type,  Signiti(!ance,  151  ;   Greek  designati'^ 

152;  Otricoli,  156,  158(111.);  when  originated,  161. 

Kaufmann,  Angelica,  348. 

Kaulbach,371. 

Key  I'attern,  64. 

Knaus,  371. 

Kolncr  Dom-bild,  318  (ill.),  321. 

LACllNEli,  386. 

La  Farge,  John,  368. 

Laocoon  Group,  176  (ill.),  177. 

Last  Communion  of  St.  Jerome,  l)y  Domenichino,  302 

(ill.),  303. 
La.st  Judgment,  by  Michael  Angelo,  279  (ill.),  281. 
Last  Supper,  by  Da  Vinci,  257,  259  (ill.). 
Leigliton,  Sir  Frederick,  370. 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  204,  257. 
Lion-Gate  of  Myceme,  139. 
Lippi,  249,  256  (ill.)T 
Liszt,  387. 
Lombard  style,  100. 
Lotus,  forms  of  capitals,  33,  61- 
Luca  della  Robl)ia,  199  (ill.),  203. 
Ludovisi  Villa  Collection,  128. 
Luini,  261,263  (ill). 
Lully,  377. 
Lunette,  203. 
Luxor,  34. 
Lysiiipus,  170. 

Mabuse,  327. 

Madeleine,  The,  8  (ill.). 

Madonna,  by  Fii.^^)o  Lippi,  256  (ill.);  bj'  Fra  Angel- 
ico,  256  (ill.);  by  Raphael,  264  (ills.)  ;  by  Del  Sarto, 
287(111.);  by  Giorgione,  291(111.);  by  Veronese,  296 
(ill.) :  by  Carlo  Dolce,  309  (ill.),  310  (ill.). 

Madonnas  of  Raphael,  265. 

Magdalen,  by  Corieggio,  284;  by  Guido,  301  (Ul.). 

Maison  Canee,  73  (ill.),  76. 

Makart,  371. 

Manet,  365. 

Mantegna,  253. 

Marble  Faun.    See  Faun. 

Mars,  Ludovisi,  170,  172  (ill.). 

Martui,  Homer,  368. 

Masaccio,  247  (ill.),  249. 

Mascagni,  389. 

Masoliiio,  248  (ill.),  249. 

Masonic  Temple,  J'liiladclphia,  19  (ill.). 

Massenet.  389. 

Master  Stephaii,  of  Cologne,  318  (ill.),  321. 

Master  William,  of  Cologne,  321. 

Mater  Dolorosa,  by  Carlo  Dolce,  309  (ill.) 

Mat.sys,  326  (ill.),  327. 

Mausoleum  Reliefs,  147. 

Meander,  64. 

Medici  Collection,  128. 

INfeissonier,  365. 

Mcmling.  321. 

Menihlssolm,  383. 

Mengs,  348. 

Mercuiy  and  Graces,  by  Tintoretto,  295  (ill.). 

Mercury,  by  Praxiteles,  148.  151, 154  (ill.),  160. 


INDEX 


393 


Mercury  type,  Significance,  151 ;  Greek  designation, 

152,  154  (ill.). 
Metopes,  62. 
Metzu,  328. 
Meyerbeer,  384. 
Msyer,  Von  Bremen.  371. 

.hael     Angelo,    architect,    118;     sculptor,    204; 

painter,  278. 
Michel,  364. 
Millai.s,  369,  370. 
Millet,  363. 
Minerva  type,  Significance,  151 ;  Greek  designation, 

152, 157  (ills.) ;  when  originated,  161. 
Mino  da  Fiesole,  204. 
Molding,  33. 

Mona  Lisa,  Portrait  of,  261. 
Monet,  365. 
Monteverde,  375. 
Monticelli,  364. 
Moresque  style,  27. 
Mosaics,  Byzantine,  91,  233-236  (ilia.). 
Moses,  by  Michael  Angelo,  208  (iU.), 
Mosque  of  Omar,  Jerusalem,  91. 
Mosque  of  St.  Sophia,  91. 
Motive,  148. 
Mozart,  380. 
Munkacsy,  371. 

MuriUo,  313,  336,  344  (ill.),  345  (ill.). 
Museum  of  Fme  Arts,  Boston,  20  (UL). 
Mutules,  62. 
Myron,  156, 160  (Ul.). 

Nave,  86,  95. 

Nicolo  of  Pisa,  195,  197  (ill.),  198  (ill.),  237. 

Nike  Apteros  Temple,  50  (ill.),  57. 

Niobe  Group,  162,  167  (ill.). 

Norman  style,  100. 

Oil-painting  introduced  into  Italy,  253. 
Olympian  Jupiter,  temple,  Athens,  56  (ill.),  58;  tem- 
ple, Olj'mpia,  144. 
Opera  House,  Paris,  12  (ill.). 
Orders,  Classic,  6  (ill.),  47-64. 

Padua,  School  of,  253. 

Page,  368. 

Painting,  Assyrian,  225 ;  Egyptian,  225 ;  Greek,  229; 
Roman,  229;  Italian,  231-314;  German,  315-322; 
Flemish,  315-336;  Dutch,  327-335;  Spanish,  336- 
347;  French,  347,  348;  English,  351. 

Paisiello,  388. 

Palestriua,  374,  375. 

Palma  Vecchio,  289,  294  (ill.),  295  (Ul.). 

Palmette,  64. 

Pantheon,  73  (ill.),  79,  89. 

Parthenon,  45  (ill.),  51;  Frieze,  144,  145(111.);  Meto- 
pes, 146  (ill.),  147. 

Peale,  Rembrandt,  366. 

Peale,  Wilson,  366. 

Pediment,  9,  62. 

Pergamus,  Reliefs  from,  147, 149  (ill.),  150  (ill.). 

Pergoli-.si,  376. 

Peri,  Jacotio,  375. 

Perseus,  St.atue  of,  by  Cellini,  212  (ill.). 

Perugiuo,  250,  252  (ill.). 

Phidias,  51,  155. 

Piers,  distingui.slied  from  columns,  89  ;  Romanesque, 
92;  Gothic,  105. 

Pietil,  by  Michael  Angelo,  204,  211  (ill.)  ;  by  Bernini, 
213  (ill.),  215  ;  by  Matsys,  326  (ill.). 

Pilasters,  10,  96. 


Pilon,  210,  212  (ill.). 

Piloty,  371. 

Pinnacles,  Gothic,  6,  106. 

Plinth,  99. 

Poetry,  by  Raphael,  267  (ilL). 

Polycletus,  156. 

Pompeii,  79. 

Porta  Maggiore,  70  (ill.). 

Potter,  Paul,  328,  331  (ill.). 

Poussin,  346  (ill.),  347. 

Powers,  Hiram,  216. 

Praxiteles,  161. 

Pre-Raphaelites,  369. 

Presentation,  by  Carpaccio,  288  (ill.);  by  Holbein  the 

Elder,  320  (ill.). 
Profile,  33. 

PropyU-ea,  51,  52,  54  (ill.). 
Purcell,  377. 

Piivis  de  Chavaunes,  366. 
Pylon,  30. 

Pyramid  of  Shafra,  39  (ill.). 
Pyramids,  34-37. 

QUEEN  ANNE  Stj'le,  22-25,  24  (ill.),  121, 125. 

Ra-EM-KA,  Statue  of,  136, 137  (ill.). 

Rafif,  386. 

Ramesseum,  35  (ill.). 

Ramses  II.,  Colos.si  of  Ipsamboul,  138  (ill.). 

Rape  of  the  Sabines,  by  John  of  Bologna,  210. 

Raphael,  262-278. 

Raveua  churches,  85. 

Rembrandt,  327,  329  (ill.). 

Renaissance  architecture,  6-17,  117-126;  sculptuMb 

196-215;  painting,  246-314. 
Renaissance,  word  detiued,  13. 
Reni,  Guido,  298,  299-301  (ills.). 
Repine,  371. 
Reynolds,  350  (ill.),  351. 
Rheims  Cathedral,  107  (ill.). 
Ribera,  304,  311  (ilLs.). 
Robusti.    See  Tintoretto. 
Rococco  style,  122. 
Roman  arch,  65-71. 
Roman  domestic  architecture,  79. 
Romanesque,  Modern,  21,  22 ;  Medieval,  82,  89,  92- 

100;  Italian,  99. 
Roman  ornament,  derived  from  Alexandrine  Greek, 

58. 
Roman  portrait  sculpture,  181. 
Roman  ruins  in  .Syria,  76. 
Roman  temples,  76. 
Rossetti,  369,  370. 
Rossini,  388. 
Rousseau,  360. 

Ruben.s,  313,  335,  340  (ill.),  341  (iU.). 
Ruysdael,  328,  330  (ill.). 
Ryder,  Albert,  369. 

ST.  Cecilia,  by  Rai)hae],  275  (ill.);  by  Domenichino, 
303 ;  by  Cailo  Dolce,  304 ;  by  the  Van  Eycks,  317 
(ill.). 

St.  Gaudens,  216. 

St.  John  Lateran,  Rome,  Church  of,  122, 123  (ill.). 

St.  Ouen,  Rouen,  103,  104  (ills.). 

St.  Paul's,  London,  121. 

St.  Paul's,  Rome,  old  Basilica,  85,  87  (ill.). 

St.  Peter's,  Rome,  118,  119  (ill.). 

St.  Peter's,  Rome,  old  Basilica,  85. 

Saint-Saens,  389. 

Salvator  Rosa,  307,  312  (ill.). 


394 


INDEX, 


San  ApolMnare  in  Classe,  Ravenna,  84  (ills.). 

Sau  Apollinare,  Nuovo,  Raveiiua,  83  (ill.). 

Sansoviuo,  210. 

Santa  Croce,  Florence,  Chnrch  of,  112  (ill.). 

Santa  Maria  dell'  Arena,  fre.scoes,  238,  239-244  (ills.). 

San  VJtale,  Ravenna,  88  (ill.). 

Sargent,  J.  S.,  369. 

Scarlatti,  Alcssanilro,  376. 

Scliluter,  215. 

School,  wont  defined,  254 :  of  Padua,  253,  289;  of  Flo- 

rence,  254;  of  Venice,  253-289;  of  Bologna,  297; 

of  Xaples,  304  ;  of  Cologne,  316. 
Schubert,  385. 
Scluiniann,  383. 
Scopa.s,  162. 
Sculpture,  Clialdean,  131;  Assyrian,  131;    Egyptian, 

131-136;  Greek,  139-178;  Roman,  181,  182;  Byzau- 

tine,  189-195;  Medieval,  181-196;  Renaissance,  196- 

215. 
Selinus,  Metope  reliefs,  143. 
Seti  I.,  Relief  portrait,  136,  227  (ill.). 
Shirlaw,  Walter,  369. 
Sibyls,  by  Raphael,  277;  by  Michael  Angelo,  281 ;  by 

Doraenichino,  303;  by  Guido,  301  (ill.). 
Sibyl  type,  308. 
Sioiiuous,  Edward  E.,  369. 
Si-stine  Chapel,  250,  262,  278,  279  (iU.). 
Snyders,  335,  339  (ill.). 
Sodonia,  284. 
Spagnoletto.    See  Rtbera. 
Sphinx,  34,  39  (ill.). 
Spires,  90. 
Spohr,  386. 
Stained  Glass,  106. 
Bteen,  328. 
Steeples,  Origin,  96. 
String-course.  26. 
Stuart,  366,  367. 
Stylobate.  62. 
Sullivan,  Sir  Arthur,  389. 
Sj'nagogue,  New  York,  27. 

Temple.    See  Architecture. 
Temple  Bar,  London,  126  (ill.). 
Tenier.s,  335,  337  (ill.). 
Terburg,  328,  332  (ill.). 
Thayer,  Abbott  H.,  369. 

Theseus,  Temple  of,  43  (ill.);  Statue  of,  146  (ill.),  151. 
Thompson,  Wordsworth,  369. 
Thornycroft,  219. 

Thorwaldsen,  130,  148,  215,  221  (ill.),  222  (UL). 
Tiepolo,  290,  351. 
Tiffany  Mansion,  New  York,  26. 
Tintoretto,  290,  295  (ill.). 
Titian,  283,  289,  292  (ill.),  293  (Ul.). 
Tombs  of  Beni-Hassan,  35. 

Tombs  of  the  Medici,  by  Michael  Angelo,  807  (ills.), 
209. 


Torso,  178. 

Towers,  Roniane.sque  use,  96, 

Transepts,  95. 

""'Tglyphs,  62. 

-  -  lumphal  arches,  72. 

Troyon,  364. 

Trutr-   -11,  367. 

T  — . 

Tu  e.,47,  76. 

UFFIZI  Collection,  128. 

Vaxderbilt  Man.sions,  New  York,  17. 

Van  Der  Weiden,  319  (ill.),  321. 

Van  Der  Werff,  335. 

Van  de  Velde,  328. 

Van  Dyck,  313,  336,  342  (ill.). 

Van  Everdingen,  328. 

Van  Eyck.s,  The,  253,  316,  317  (iU.). 

Van  Iluysum,  335. 

Van  Ostade,  328,  332  (ill.),  333  (iU.). 

Vaulting,  Roman  method,  72;    Komanesqoe,  OG-vtf; 

Gothic,  105,  106. 
Vedder,  Eliliu,  368. 
Velasquez,  343  (ill.),  347. 
Venice,  School  of,  253. 
Venus  and  Bacchante,  by  Titian,  293  (iU.). 
Venus,  Medici,  170,  174  (ill.). 
Venus  of  Milo,  148,  151,  163  (iU.),  164  (ill.). 
Venus  tj'pe.  Significance,  151 ;  Greek  designation,  152, 

163  (ill.) ;  -wlien  originated,  161,  174  (ill.). 
Verdi,  389. 
Verestchagin,  371. 
Verocchio,  204,  205  (ill  ),  250. 
Veronese,  290,  290  (ill.). 

Victory  reliefs,  Athenian  AcropoU.s,  147,  149 (UIs.). 
Vischer,  Petei-,  210,  214  (ill.). 
Von  Mieris,  328. 
Votive  Church,  Vienna,  4. 

Wagner,  216. 

Wallace,  389. 

Warner,  386,  387. 

Watteau,  351. 

Watts,  George  F.,  370. 

Weber,  384. 

West,  367. 

Whistler,  James  M.,  369. 

Wilkie.  358,  359. 

Wiuckilmann,  14, 129, 130,  148,  178,  2ia 

Wingless  Victory,  Temple  of,  50  (UL),  57;  Balnstrade 

reliefs,  147,  149  (ills.). 
Wooden  Man  of  Boulak,  136, 137  (ill.). 
Wouvermans,  335. 
Wrestler  Group,  175  (ills.),  177. 

Zampieui.    See  Domcnichino. 
Zeus.    See  Jupiter  and,  152. 
Zorn,  371. 


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